IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/inm/ororsc/v31y2020i6p1515-1537.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Creating Mutual Gains to Leverage a Racially Diverse Workforce: The Effects of Firm-Level Racial Diversity on Financial and Workforce Outcomes Under the Use of Broad-Based Stock Options

Author

Listed:
  • Joo Hun Han

    (School of Management and Labor Relations, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854)

  • DuckJung Shin

    (Chung-Ang University Business School, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea)

  • William G. Castellano,

    (School of Management and Labor Relations, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854)

  • Alison M. Konrad

    (Ivey Business School, Western University, London, Ontario N6G 0N1, Canada)

  • Douglas L. Kruse

    (School of Management and Labor Relations, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854)

  • Joseph R. Blasi

    (School of Management and Labor Relations, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854)

Abstract

Despite substantial scholarly attention to workforce demographic diversity, existing research is limited in understanding whether or in what contexts firm-level racial diversity relates to performance and workforce outcomes of the firm. Drawing on social interdependence theory along with insights from social exchange and psychological ownership theories, we propose that the use of broad-based stock options granted to at least half the workforce creates the conditions supporting a positive relationship between workforce racial diversity and firm outcomes. We examine this proposition by analyzing panel data from 155 companies that applied for the “100 Best Companies to Work For” competition with responses from 109,314 employees over the five-year period from 2006 to 2010 (354 company-year observations). Findings revealed that racial diversity was positively related to subsequent firm financial performance and individual affective commitment and was not significantly associated with subsequent voluntary turnover rates, when accompanied by a firm’s adoption of broad-based stock options. However, under the nonuse of broad-based stock options, racial diversity was significantly related to higher voluntary turnover rates and lower employee affective commitment, with no financial performance gains. By documenting the beneficial effects of financial incentives in diverse workplaces, this paper extends theory asserting the value of incentives for performance.

Suggested Citation

  • Joo Hun Han & DuckJung Shin & William G. Castellano, & Alison M. Konrad & Douglas L. Kruse & Joseph R. Blasi, 2020. "Creating Mutual Gains to Leverage a Racially Diverse Workforce: The Effects of Firm-Level Racial Diversity on Financial and Workforce Outcomes Under the Use of Broad-Based Stock Options," Organization Science, INFORMS, vol. 31(6), pages 1515-1537, November.
    • Handle: RePEc:inm:ororsc:v:31:y:2020:i:6:p:1515-1537
    DOI: 10.1287/orsc.2020.1360
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2020.1360
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1287/orsc.2020.1360?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Alok Bhargava & J. D. Sargan, 2006. "Estimating Dynamic Random Effects Models From Panel Data Covering Short Time Periods," World Scientific Book Chapters, in: Econometrics, Statistics And Computational Approaches In Food And Health Sciences, chapter 1, pages 3-27, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd..
    2. Hansen, Lars Peter, 1982. "Large Sample Properties of Generalized Method of Moments Estimators," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 50(4), pages 1029-1054, July.
    3. Ittner, Christopher D. & Lambert, Richard A. & Larcker, David F., 2003. "The structure and performance consequences of equity grants to employees of new economy firms," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 34(1-3), pages 89-127, January.
    4. Autant-Bernard, Corinne & Fadairo, Muriel & Massard, Nadine, 2013. "Knowledge diffusion and innovation policies within the European regions: Challenges based on recent empirical evidence," Research Policy, Elsevier, vol. 42(1), pages 196-210.
    5. Yael V. Hochberg & Laura Lindsey, 2010. "Incentives, Targeting, and Firm Performance: An Analysis of Non-executive Stock Options," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 23(11), pages 4148-4186, November.
    6. Philipp Sieger & Thomas Zellweger & Karl Aquino, 2013. "Turning Agents into Psychological Principals: Aligning Interests of Non-Owners through Psychological Ownership," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 50(3), pages 361-388, May.
    7. Oyer, Paul & Schaefer, Scott, 2005. "Why do some firms give stock options to all employees?: An empirical examination of alternative theories," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 76(1), pages 99-133, April.
    8. Andrew Pendleton & Nicholas Wilson & Mike Wright, 1998. "The Perception and Effects of Share Ownership: Empirical Evidence from Employee Buy-Outs," British Journal of Industrial Relations, London School of Economics, vol. 36(1), pages 99-123, March.
    9. Aboody, David & Johnson, Nicole Bastian & Kasznik, Ron, 2010. "Employee stock options and future firm performance: Evidence from option repricings," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(1), pages 74-92, May.
    10. Stéphane J. G. Girod & Richard Whittington, 2017. "Reconfiguration, restructuring and firm performance: Dynamic capabilities and environmental dynamism," Strategic Management Journal, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 38(5), pages 1121-1133, May.
    11. Kruse, Douglas L. & Freeman, Richard B. & Blasi, Joseph R. (ed.), 2010. "Shared Capitalism at Work," National Bureau of Economic Research Books, University of Chicago Press, number 9780226056951.
    12. Paul Almeida & Bruce Kogut, 1999. "Localization of Knowledge and the Mobility of Engineers in Regional Networks," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 45(7), pages 905-917, July.
    13. Richard Williams & Paul D. Allison & Enrique Moral-Benito, 2018. "Linear dynamic panel-data estimation using maximum likelihood and structural equation modeling," Stata Journal, StataCorp LP, vol. 18(2), pages 293-326, June.
    14. Richard B. Freeman & Douglas L. Kruse & Joseph R. Blasi, 2010. "Worker Responses to Shirking under Shared Capitalism," NBER Chapters, in: Shared Capitalism at Work: Employee Ownership, Profit and Gain Sharing, and Broad-based Stock Options, pages 77-103, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    15. Cristian L. Dezsö & David Gaddis Ross, 2012. "Does female representation in top management improve firm performance? A panel data investigation," Strategic Management Journal, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 33(9), pages 1072-1089, September.
    16. James C. Sesil & Yu Peng Lin, 2011. "The Impact of Employee Stock Option Adoption and Incidence on Productivity: Evidence from U.S. Panel Data," Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 50(3), pages 514-534, July.
    17. Christopher Marquis & András Tilcsik, 2016. "Institutional Equivalence: How Industry and Community Peers Influence Corporate Philanthropy," Organization Science, INFORMS, vol. 27(5), pages 1325-1341, October.
    18. Anne Jacqueminet, 2020. "Practice Implementation Within a Multidivisional Firm: The Role of Institutional Pressures and Value Consistency," Organization Science, INFORMS, vol. 31(1), pages 182-199, January.
    19. Sebastian Kripfganz, 2016. "Quasi–maximum likelihood estimation of linear dynamic short-T panel-data models," Stata Journal, StataCorp LP, vol. 16(4), pages 1013-1038, December.
    20. Michael Jensen & Edward J. Zajac, 2004. "Corporate elites and corporate strategy: how demographic preferences and structural position shape the scope of the firm," Strategic Management Journal, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 25(6), pages 507-524, June.
    21. Jeffrey M Wooldridge, 2010. "Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data," MIT Press Books, The MIT Press, edition 2, volume 1, number 0262232588, April.
    22. Super, Janice Francis & Li, Pingshu & Ishqaidef, Ghadir & Guthrie, James P., 2016. "Group rewards, group composition and information sharing: A motivated information processing perspective," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 134(C), pages 31-44.
    23. Orlando C. Richard & B. P. S Murthi & Kiran Ismail, 2007. "The impact of racial diversity on intermediate and long‐term performance: The moderating role of environmental context," Strategic Management Journal, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 28(12), pages 1213-1233, December.
    24. Jingoo Kang & Ribuga Kang & Sang‐Joon Kim, 2017. "An empirical examination of vacillation theory," Strategic Management Journal, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 38(6), pages 1356-1370, June.
    25. Jasjit Singh, 2005. "Collaborative Networks as Determinants of Knowledge Diffusion Patterns," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 51(5), pages 756-770, May.
    26. Belmi, Peter & Pfeffer, Jeffrey, 2018. "The Effect of Economic Consequences on Social Judgment and Choice: Reward Interdependence and the Preference for Sociability versus Competence," Research Papers repec:ecl:stabus:3640, Stanford University, Graduate School of Business.
    27. Catherine A. Maritan & Thomas H. Brush, 2003. "Heterogeneity and transferring practices: implementing flow manufacturing in multiple plants," Strategic Management Journal, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 24(10), pages 945-959, October.
    28. Norbert Steigenberger & Hendrik Wilhelm, 2018. "Extending Signaling Theory to Rhetorical Signals: Evidence from Crowdfunding," Organization Science, INFORMS, vol. 29(3), pages 529-546, June.
    29. Richard B. Freeman & Joseph R. Blasi & Douglas L. Kruse, 2010. "Introduction to "Shared Capitalism at Work: Employee Ownership, Profit and Gain Sharing, and Broad-based Stock Options"," NBER Chapters, in: Shared Capitalism at Work: Employee Ownership, Profit and Gain Sharing, and Broad-based Stock Options, pages 1-37, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    30. Edward J. Carberry, 2010. "Who Benefits from Shared Capitalism? The Social Stratification of Wealth and Power in Companies with Employee Ownership," NBER Chapters, in: Shared Capitalism at Work: Employee Ownership, Profit and Gain Sharing, and Broad-based Stock Options, pages 317-349, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    31. Peter Cappelli & Martin Conyon & David Almeda, 2020. "Social Exchange and the Effects of Employee Stock Options," ILR Review, Cornell University, ILR School, vol. 73(1), pages 124-152, January.
    32. Weiting Zheng & Kulwant Singh & Will Mitchell, 2015. "Buffering and enabling: The impact of interlocking political ties on firm survival and sales growth," Strategic Management Journal, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 36(11), pages 1615-1636, November.
    33. Douglas L. Kruse & Richard B. Freeman & Joseph R. Blasi, 2010. "Shared Capitalism at Work: Employee Ownership, Profit and Gain Sharing, and Broad-based Stock Options," NBER Books, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc, number krus08-1.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Arnaud Chevalier, 2022. "Does employee ownership improve performance?," IZA World of Labor, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA), pages 311-311, May.
    2. Vlas, Cristina O. & Richard, Orlando C. & Andrevski, Goce & Konrad, Alison M. & Yang, Yang, 2022. "Dynamic capabilities for managing racially diverse workforces: Effects on competitive action variety and firm performance," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 141(C), pages 600-618.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Nien-Chi Liu & Ming-Yuan Chen & Mei-Ling Wang, 2016. "The Effects of Non-Expensed Employee Stock Bonus on Firm Performance: Evidence from Taiwanese High-Tech Firms," British Journal of Industrial Relations, London School of Economics, vol. 54(1), pages 30-54, March.
    2. Geert Braam & Erik Poutsma, 2015. "Broad-Based Financial Participation Plans and Their Impact on Financial Performance: Evidence from a Dutch Longitudinal Panel," De Economist, Springer, vol. 163(2), pages 177-202, June.
    3. Peter Cappelli & Martin Conyon & David Almeda, 2020. "Social Exchange and the Effects of Employee Stock Options," ILR Review, Cornell University, ILR School, vol. 73(1), pages 124-152, January.
    4. Fathi Fakhfakh & Andrew Robinson & Aguibou Tall, 2019. "Financial Participation and Collective Conflicts: Evidence from French Firms," Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 58(4), pages 674-703, October.
    5. Hongfeng Sun & Chang Liu, 2023. "Employee Stock Ownership Plans and Corporate Environmental Performance: Evidence from China," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(2), pages 1-19, January.
    6. Wenjing Ouyang & Menghistu Sallehu, 2015. "How do Broad-Based Stock Option Grants Affect Firms' Overall Future Productivity," The International Journal of Business and Finance Research, The Institute for Business and Finance Research, vol. 9(2), pages 21-38.
    7. Abdelnour Joseph & Aubert Nicolas & Campa Domenico, 2022. "Does employee ownership decrease agency costs? Evidence from French listed companies [L'actionnariat salarié réduit-il les coûts d'agence? Le cas des entreprises françaises cotées]," Post-Print hal-03723164, HAL.
    8. Nicolas Aubert & Xavier Hollandts, 2015. "How Shared Capitalism Affects Employee Withdrawal: An Econometric Case Study Of A French-Listed Company," Post-Print halshs-01256759, HAL.
    9. Petri Böckerman & Alex Bryson & Pekka Ilmakunnas, 2013. "Does high involvement management lead to higher pay?," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A, Royal Statistical Society, vol. 176(4), pages 861-885, October.
    10. Bryson, Alex & Clark, Andrew E. & Freeman, Richard B. & Green, Colin P., 2016. "Share capitalism and worker wellbeing," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 42(C), pages 151-158.
    11. Vladimirov, Vladimir, 2021. "Financing Skilled Labor," CEPR Discussion Papers 15751, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
    12. John S. Heywood & Uwe Jirjahn, 2014. "Variable Pay, Industrial Relations and Foreign Ownership: Evidence from Germany," British Journal of Industrial Relations, London School of Economics, vol. 52(3), pages 521-552, September.
    13. Uwe Jirjahn & Jens Mohrenweiser, 2019. "Performance Pay and Applicant Screening," British Journal of Industrial Relations, London School of Economics, vol. 57(3), pages 540-575, September.
    14. Gabriel Burdín, 2014. "Are Worker-Managed Firms More Likely to Fail Than Conventional Enterprises? Evidence from Uruguay," ILR Review, Cornell University, ILR School, vol. 67(1), pages 202-238, January.
    15. Stefania Cardinaleschi & Mirella Damiani & Fabrizio Pompei, 2020. "Knowledge-intensive sectors and the role of collective performance-related pay," Industry and Innovation, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 27(5), pages 480-512, May.
    16. Josse Delfgaauw & Robert Dur & Oke Onemu & Joeri Sol, 2022. "Team Incentives, Social Cohesion, and Performance: A Natural Field Experiment," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 68(1), pages 230-256, January.
    17. Park, Heejin & Noh, Jung-Hee & Pedersen, Melissa & Lee, Sora, 2022. "What are the determinants and managerial motivations for employee ownership in retirement pension plans?," The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 59(C).
    18. Jeffrey Carpenter & Andrea Robbett & Prottoy A. Akbar, 2018. "Profit Sharing and Peer Reporting," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 64(9), pages 4261-4276, September.
    19. Prasad, Ajnesh, 2018. "When is economic inequality justified?," Business Horizons, Elsevier, vol. 61(6), pages 855-862.
    20. repec:ilr:articl:v:67:y:2014:i:1:p:202-238 is not listed on IDEAS
    21. Hristos Doucouliagos & Patrice Laroche & Douglas L. Kruse & T. D. Stanley, 2020. "Is Profit Sharing Productive? A Meta‐Regression Analysis," British Journal of Industrial Relations, London School of Economics, vol. 58(2), pages 364-395, June.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:inm:ororsc:v:31:y:2020:i:6:p:1515-1537. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Chris Asher (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://edirc.repec.org/data/inforea.html .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.