IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jeners/v12y2019i19p3599-d269276.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Assessing Renewable Energy Sources for Electricity (RES-E) Potential Using a CAPM-Analogous Multi-Stage Model

Author

Listed:
  • Paulino Martinez-Fernandez

    (Department of Business, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of A Coruna, Campus de Elvina, 15071 A Coruna, Spain)

  • Fernando deLlano-Paz

    (Department of Business, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of A Coruna, Campus de Elvina, 15071 A Coruna, Spain)

  • Anxo Calvo-Silvosa

    (Department of Business, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of A Coruna, Campus de Elvina, 15071 A Coruna, Spain)

  • Isabel Soares

    (Department of Economy, Faculty of Economics and CEF.UP, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-464 Porto, Portugal)

Abstract

Carbon mitigation is a major aim of the power-generation regulation. Renewable energy sources for electricity are essential to design a future low-carbon mix. In this work, financial Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) is implemented to optimize the power-generation technologies portfolio. We include technological and environmental restrictions in the model. The optimization is carried out in two stages. Firstly, we minimize the cost and risk of the generation portfolio, and afterwards, we minimize its emission factor and risk. By combining these two results, we are able to draw an area which can be considered analogous to the Capital Market Line (CML) used by the Capital Asset Pricing model (CAPM). This area delimits the set of long-term power-generation portfolios that can be selected to achieve a progressive decarbonisation of the mix. This work confirms the relevant role of small hydro, offshore wind, and large hydro as preferential technologies in efficient portfolios. It is necessary to include all available renewable technologies in order to reduce the cost and the risk of the portfolio, benefiting from the diversification effect. Additionally, carbon capture and storage technologies must be available and deployed if fossil fuel technologies remain in the portfolio in a low-carbon approach.

Suggested Citation

  • Paulino Martinez-Fernandez & Fernando deLlano-Paz & Anxo Calvo-Silvosa & Isabel Soares, 2019. "Assessing Renewable Energy Sources for Electricity (RES-E) Potential Using a CAPM-Analogous Multi-Stage Model," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(19), pages 1-20, September.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:12:y:2019:i:19:p:3599-:d:269276
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/12/19/3599/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/12/19/3599/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Koltsaklis, Nikolaos E. & Liu, Pei & Georgiadis, Michael C., 2015. "An integrated stochastic multi-regional long-term energy planning model incorporating autonomous power systems and demand response," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 82(C), pages 865-888.
    2. Stirling, Andrew, 1994. "Diversity and ignorance in electricity supply investment : Addressing the solution rather than the problem," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 22(3), pages 195-216, March.
    3. William F. Sharpe, 1963. "A Simplified Model for Portfolio Analysis," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 9(2), pages 277-293, January.
    4. de-Llano Paz, Fernando & Antelo, Susana Iglesias & Calvo Silvosa, Anxo & Soares, Isabel, 2014. "The technological and environmental efficiency of the EU-27 power mix: An evaluation based on MPT," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 69(C), pages 67-81.
    5. Shaban Boloukat, Mohammad Hadi & Akbari Foroud, Asghar, 2016. "Stochastic-based resource expansion planning for a grid-connected microgrid using interval linear programming," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 113(C), pages 776-787.
    6. Westner, Günther & Madlener, Reinhard, 2010. "The benefit of regional diversification of cogeneration investments in Europe: A mean-variance portfolio analysis," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 38(12), pages 7911-7920, December.
    7. Lynch, Muireann Á. & Shortt, Aonghus & Tol, Richard S.J. & O'Malley, Mark J., 2013. "Risk–return incentives in liberalised electricity markets," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 40(C), pages 598-608.
    8. Shimbar, Ali & Ebrahimi, Seyed Babak, 2017. "The application of DNPV to unlock foreign direct investment in waste-to-energy in developing countries," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 132(C), pages 186-193.
    9. Awerbuch, Shimon & Yang, Spencer, 2007. "Efficient electricity generating portfolios for Europe: maximising energy security and climate change mitigation," EIB Papers 7/2007, European Investment Bank, Economics Department.
    10. Copiello, Sergio & Gabrielli, Laura & Bonifaci, Pietro, 2017. "Evaluation of energy retrofit in buildings under conditions of uncertainty: The prominence of the discount rate," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 137(C), pages 104-117.
    11. Shimon Awerbuch, 2006. "Portfolio-Based Electricity Generation Planning: Policy Implications For Renewables And Energy Security," Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Springer, vol. 11(3), pages 693-710, May.
    12. Soderholm, Patrik & Sundqvist, Thomas, 2003. "Pricing environmental externalities in the power sector: ethical limits and implications for social choice," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 46(3), pages 333-350, October.
    13. Monjon, Stéphanie & Quirion, Philippe, 2011. "Addressing leakage in the EU ETS: Border adjustment or output-based allocation?," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 70(11), pages 1957-1971, September.
    14. Böhringer, Christoph & Bortolamedi, Markus, 2015. "Sense and no(n)-sense of energy security indicators," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 119(C), pages 359-371.
    15. Gao, Cuixia & Sun, Mei & Shen, Bo & Li, Ranran & Tian, Lixin, 2014. "Optimization of China's energy structure based on portfolio theory," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 77(C), pages 890-897.
    16. Tajeddini, Mohammad Amin & Rahimi-Kian, Ashkan & Soroudi, Alireza, 2014. "Risk averse optimal operation of a virtual power plant using two stage stochastic programming," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 73(C), pages 958-967.
    17. Johansson, Bengt, 2013. "Security aspects of future renewable energy systems–A short overview," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 61(C), pages 598-605.
    18. Cheng, Cheng & Wang, Zhen & Liu, Mingming & Chen, Qiang & Gbatu, Abimelech Paye & Ren, Xiaohang, 2017. "Defer option valuation and optimal investment timing of solar photovoltaic projects under different electricity market systems and support schemes," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 127(C), pages 594-610.
    19. Stempien, J.P. & Chan, S.H., 2017. "Addressing energy trilemma via the modified Markowitz Mean-Variance Portfolio Optimization theory," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 202(C), pages 228-237.
    20. deLlano-Paz, Fernando & Martínez Fernandez, Paulino & Soares, Isabel, 2016. "Addressing 2030 EU policy framework for energy and climate: Cost, risk and energy security issues," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 115(P2), pages 1347-1360.
    21. Zhang, Guofu & Du, Ziping, 2017. "Co-movements among the stock prices of new energy, high-technology and fossil fuel companies in China," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 135(C), pages 249-256.
    22. repec:dau:papers:123456789/7346 is not listed on IDEAS
    23. Allan, Grant & Eromenko, Igor & McGregor, Peter & Swales, Kim, 2011. "The regional electricity generation mix in Scotland: A portfolio selection approach incorporating marine technologies," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 39(1), pages 6-22, January.
    24. Nie, S. & Li, Y.P. & Liu, J. & Huang, Charley Z., 2017. "Risk management of energy system for identifying optimal power mix with financial-cost minimization and environmental-impact mitigation under uncertainty," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 61(C), pages 313-329.
    25. Broadstock, David C. & Filis, George, 2014. "Oil price shocks and stock market returns: New evidence from the United States and China," Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Elsevier, vol. 33(C), pages 417-433.
    26. Paulino Martinez-Fernandez & Fernando deLlano-Paz & Anxo Calvo-Silvosa & Isabel Soares, 2018. "Pollutant versus non-pollutant generation technologies: a CML-analogous analysis," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 20(1), pages 199-212, December.
    27. Kruyt, Bert & van Vuuren, D.P. & de Vries, H.J.M. & Groenenberg, H., 2009. "Indicators for energy security," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 37(6), pages 2166-2181, June.
    28. Roques, Fabien & Hiroux, Céline & Saguan, Marcelo, 2010. "Optimal wind power deployment in Europe--A portfolio approach," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 38(7), pages 3245-3256, July.
    29. Delarue, Erik & De Jonghe, Cedric & Belmans, Ronnie & D'haeseleer, William, 2011. "Applying portfolio theory to the electricity sector: Energy versus power," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 33(1), pages 12-23, January.
    30. Codina Gironès, Victor & Moret, Stefano & Maréchal, François & Favrat, Daniel, 2015. "Strategic energy planning for large-scale energy systems: A modelling framework to aid decision-making," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 90(P1), pages 173-186.
    31. Panwar, N.L. & Kaushik, S.C. & Kothari, Surendra, 2011. "Role of renewable energy sources in environmental protection: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 15(3), pages 1513-1524, April.
    32. Arnesano, M. & Carlucci, A.P. & Laforgia, D., 2012. "Extension of portfolio theory application to energy planning problem – The Italian case," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 39(1), pages 112-124.
    33. Dincer, Ibrahim, 2000. "Renewable energy and sustainable development: a crucial review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 4(2), pages 157-175, June.
    34. Urhammer, Emil, 2017. "Celestial bodies and satellites – Energy issues, models, and imaginaries in Denmark since 1973," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 131(C), pages 425-433.
    35. Jaffe, Adam B. & Newell, Richard G. & Stavins, Robert N., 2005. "A tale of two market failures: Technology and environmental policy," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 54(2-3), pages 164-174, August.
    36. Falsafi, Hananeh & Zakariazadeh, Alireza & Jadid, Shahram, 2014. "The role of demand response in single and multi-objective wind-thermal generation scheduling: A stochastic programming," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 64(C), pages 853-867.
    37. Bhattacharya, Anindya & Kojima, Satoshi, 2012. "Power sector investment risk and renewable energy: A Japanese case study using portfolio risk optimization method," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 40(C), pages 69-80.
    38. Zhu, Lei & Fan, Ying, 2010. "Optimization of China's generating portfolio and policy implications based on portfolio theory," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 35(3), pages 1391-1402.
    39. Jano-Ito, Marco A. & Crawford-Brown, Douglas, 2017. "Investment decisions considering economic, environmental and social factors: An actors' perspective for the electricity sector of Mexico," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 121(C), pages 92-106.
    40. Rohlfs, Wilko & Madlener, Reinhard, 2013. "Assessment of clean-coal strategies: The questionable merits of carbon capture-readiness," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 52(C), pages 27-36.
    41. Liu, Yuan & He, Li & Shen, Jing, 2017. "Optimization-based provincial hybrid renewable and non-renewable energy planning – A case study of Shanxi, China," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 128(C), pages 839-856.
    42. Yemshanov, Denys & Koch, Frank H. & Lu, Bo & Lyons, D. Barry & Prestemon, Jeffrey P. & Scarr, Taylor & Koehler, Klaus, 2014. "There is no silver bullet: The value of diversification in planning invasive species surveillance," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 104(C), pages 61-72.
    43. Oberndorfer, Ulrich, 2009. "EU Emission Allowances and the stock market: Evidence from the electricity industry," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 68(4), pages 1116-1126, February.
    44. Cormio, C. & Dicorato, M. & Minoia, A. & Trovato, M., 2003. "A regional energy planning methodology including renewable energy sources and environmental constraints," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 7(2), pages 99-130, April.
    45. Jaeyong Chae & Sung-Kwan Joo, 2017. "Demand Response Resource Allocation Method Using Mean-Variance Portfolio Theory for Load Aggregators in the Korean Demand Response Market," Energies, MDPI, vol. 10(7), pages 1-14, June.
    46. Lucheroni, Carlo & Mari, Carlo, 2017. "CO2 volatility impact on energy portfolio choice: A fully stochastic LCOE theory analysis," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 190(C), pages 278-290.
    47. William F. Sharpe, 1964. "Capital Asset Prices: A Theory Of Market Equilibrium Under Conditions Of Risk," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 19(3), pages 425-442, September.
    48. Muñoz, Beatriz & García-Verdugo, Javier & San-Martín, Enrique, 2015. "Quantifying the geopolitical dimension of energy risks: A tool for energy modelling and planning," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 82(C), pages 479-500.
    49. Akter, Sonia & Kompas, Tom & Ward, Michael B., 2015. "Application of portfolio theory to asset-based biosecurity decision analysis," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 117(C), pages 73-85.
    50. Gómez, Antonio & Dopazo, César & Fueyo, Norberto, 2016. "The “cost of not doing” energy planning: The Spanish energy bubble," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 101(C), pages 434-446.
    51. Antimiani, Alessandro & Costantini, Valeria & Kuik, Onno & Paglialunga, Elena, 2016. "Mitigation of adverse effects on competitiveness and leakage of unilateral EU climate policy: An assessment of policy instruments," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 128(C), pages 246-259.
    52. deLlano-Paz, Fernando & Calvo-Silvosa, Anxo & Antelo, Susana Iglesias & Soares, Isabel, 2017. "Energy planning and modern portfolio theory: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 77(C), pages 636-651.
    53. Hickey, Emily A. & Lon Carlson, J. & Loomis, David, 2010. "Issues in the determination of the optimal portfolio of electricity supply options," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 38(5), pages 2198-2207, May.
    54. deLlano-Paz, Fernando & Calvo-Silvosa, Anxo & Iglesias Antelo, Susana & Soares, Isabel, 2015. "The European low-carbon mix for 2030: The role of renewable energy sources in an environmentally and socially efficient approach," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 48(C), pages 49-61.
    55. Tolmasquim, Mauricio Tiomno & Seroa da Motta, Ronaldo & La Rovere, Emilio Lebre & Barata, Martha Macedo de Lima & Monteiro, Aline Guimaraes, 2001. "Environmental valuation for long-term strategic planning -- the case of the Brazilian power sector," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 37(1), pages 39-51, April.
    56. Schaeffer, Roberto & Borba, Bruno S.M.C. & Rathmann, Régis & Szklo, Alexandre & Castelo Branco, David A., 2012. "Dow Jones sustainability index transmission to oil stock market returns: A GARCH approach," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 45(1), pages 933-943.
    57. Huang, Yun-Hsun & Wu, Jung-Hua & Hsu, Yu-Ju, 2016. "Two-stage stochastic programming model for the regional-scale electricity planning under demand uncertainty," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 116(P1), pages 1145-1157.
    58. Kim, Seunghyok & Koo, Jamin & Lee, Chang Jun & Yoon, En Sup, 2012. "Optimization of Korean energy planning for sustainability considering uncertainties in learning rates and external factors," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 44(1), pages 126-134.
    59. Eyre, Nick, 1997. "External costs : What do they mean for energy policy?," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 25(1), pages 85-95, January.
    60. Rogge, Karoline S. & Schneider, Malte & Hoffmann, Volker H., 2011. "The innovation impact of the EU Emission Trading System -- Findings of company case studies in the German power sector," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 70(3), pages 513-523, January.
    61. Charwand, Mansour & Gitizadeh, Mohsen & Siano, Pierluigi, 2017. "A new active portfolio risk management for an electricity retailer based on a drawdown risk preference," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 118(C), pages 387-398.
    62. Apergis, Nicholas & Payne, James E. & Menyah, Kojo & Wolde-Rufael, Yemane, 2010. "On the causal dynamics between emissions, nuclear energy, renewable energy, and economic growth," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 69(11), pages 2255-2260, September.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Dogan, Eyup & Madaleno, Mara & Taskin, Dilvin & Tzeremes, Panayiotis, 2022. "Investigating the spillovers and connectedness between green finance and renewable energy sources," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 197(C), pages 709-722.
    2. Dumiter Florin Cornel & Turcaș Florin Marius & Boiţă Marius, 2023. "Oil Shock Impact Upon Energy Companies Investment Portfolios. Trends and Evolutions in the Energy Consumption Sector," Studia Universitatis „Vasile Goldis” Arad – Economics Series, Sciendo, vol. 33(1), pages 1-27, March.
    3. José Claudio Isaias & Pedro Paulo Balestrassi & Guilherme Augusto Barucke Marcondes & Wesley Vieira da Silva & Carlos Henrique Pereira Mello & Claudimar Pereira da Veiga, 2021. "Project Portfolio Selection of Solar Energy by Photovoltaic Generation Using Gini-CAPM Multi-Criteria and Considering ROI Covariations," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(24), pages 1-21, December.
    4. Wang, Yan & Yang, Tianxiao & Liu, Zhaomin & Chi, Zhong & Lu, Lili, 2024. "Combining natural resources to drive technology and efficiency for a greener economic recovery," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 89(C).

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. deLlano-Paz, Fernando & Calvo-Silvosa, Anxo & Antelo, Susana Iglesias & Soares, Isabel, 2017. "Energy planning and modern portfolio theory: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 77(C), pages 636-651.
    2. Paulino Martinez-Fernandez & Fernando deLlano-Paz & Anxo Calvo-Silvosa & Isabel Soares, 2018. "Pollutant versus non-pollutant generation technologies: a CML-analogous analysis," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 20(1), pages 199-212, December.
    3. deLlano-Paz, Fernando & Martínez Fernandez, Paulino & Soares, Isabel, 2016. "Addressing 2030 EU policy framework for energy and climate: Cost, risk and energy security issues," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 115(P2), pages 1347-1360.
    4. Zhang, Shuang & Zhao, Tao & Xie, Bai-Chen, 2018. "What is the optimal power generation mix of China? An empirical analysis using portfolio theory," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 229(C), pages 522-536.
    5. deLlano-Paz, Fernando & Calvo-Silvosa, Anxo & Iglesias Antelo, Susana & Soares, Isabel, 2015. "The European low-carbon mix for 2030: The role of renewable energy sources in an environmentally and socially efficient approach," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 48(C), pages 49-61.
    6. Turkson, Charles & Liu, Wenbin & Acquaye, Adolf, 2024. "A data envelopment analysis based evaluation of sustainable energy generation portfolio scenarios," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 363(C).
    7. Pérez Odeh, Rodrigo & Watts, David & Flores, Yarela, 2018. "Planning in a changing environment: Applications of portfolio optimisation to deal with risk in the electricity sector," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 82(P3), pages 3808-3823.
    8. de-Llano Paz, Fernando & Antelo, Susana Iglesias & Calvo Silvosa, Anxo & Soares, Isabel, 2014. "The technological and environmental efficiency of the EU-27 power mix: An evaluation based on MPT," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 69(C), pages 67-81.
    9. Fernando deLlano-Paz & Paulino Martinez Fernandez & Isabel Soares, 2016. "The effects of different CCS technological scenarios on EU low-carbon generation mix," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 18(5), pages 1477-1500, October.
    10. Ioannou, Anastasia & Angus, Andrew & Brennan, Feargal, 2017. "Risk-based methods for sustainable energy system planning: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 74(C), pages 602-615.
    11. Inzunza, Andrés & Muñoz, Francisco D. & Moreno, Rodrigo, 2021. "Measuring the effects of environmental policies on electricity markets risk," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 102(C).
    12. Chuang, Ming Chih & Ma, Hwong Wen, 2013. "Energy security and improvements in the function of diversity indices—Taiwan energy supply structure case study," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 24(C), pages 9-20.
    13. Lado-Sestayo, Rubén & De Llano-Paz, Fernando & Vivel-Búa, Milagros & Martínez-Salgueiro, Andrea, 2023. "Commodity exposure in the eurozone: How EU energy security is conditioned by the Euro," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 277(C).
    14. Pérez Odeh, Rodrigo & Watts, David & Negrete-Pincetic, Matías, 2018. "Portfolio applications in electricity markets review: Private investor and manager perspective trends," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 81(P1), pages 192-204.
    15. Shakouri, Mahmoud & Lee, Hyun Woo & Choi, Kunhee, 2015. "PACPIM: New decision-support model of optimized portfolio analysis for community-based photovoltaic investment," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 156(C), pages 607-617.
    16. Tietjen, Oliver & Pahle, Michael & Fuss, Sabine, 2016. "Investment risks in power generation: A comparison of fossil fuel and renewable energy dominated markets," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 58(C), pages 174-185.
    17. Kim, Yeong Jae & Cho, Seong-Hoon & Sharma, Bijay P., 2021. "Constructing efficient portfolios of low-carbon technologies," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 150(C).
    18. Shahriari, Mehdi & Blumsack, Seth, 2018. "The capacity value of optimal wind and solar portfolios," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 148(C), pages 992-1005.
    19. Zeng, Ximei & Zhou, Zhongbao & Gong, Yeming & Liu, Wenbin, 2022. "A data envelopment analysis model integrated with portfolio theory for energy mix adjustment: Evidence in the power industry," Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, Elsevier, vol. 83(C).
    20. López Prol, Javier & de Llano Paz, Fernando & Calvo-Silvosa, Anxo & Pfenninger, Stefan & Staffell, Iain, 2024. "Wind-solar technological, spatial and temporal complementarities in Europe: A portfolio approach," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 292(C).

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:12:y:2019:i:19:p:3599-:d:269276. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.