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Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Children's Intelligence (IQ): In a UK-Representative Sample SES Moderates the Environmental, Not Genetic, Effect on IQ

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  • Ken B Hanscombe
  • Maciej Trzaskowski
  • Claire M A Haworth
  • Oliver S P Davis
  • Philip S Dale
  • Robert Plomin

Abstract

Background: The environment can moderate the effect of genes - a phenomenon called gene-environment (GxE) interaction. Several studies have found that socioeconomic status (SES) modifies the heritability of children's intelligence. Among low-SES families, genetic factors have been reported to explain less of the variance in intelligence; the reverse is found for high-SES families. The evidence however is inconsistent. Other studies have reported an effect in the opposite direction (higher heritability in lower SES), or no moderation of the genetic effect on intelligence. Methods: Using 8716 twin pairs from the Twins Early Development Study (TEDS), we attempted to replicate the reported moderating effect of SES on children's intelligence at ages 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 12 and 14: i.e., lower heritability in lower-SES families. We used a twin model that allowed for a main effect of SES on intelligence, as well as a moderating effect of SES on the genetic and environmental components of intelligence. Results: We found greater variance in intelligence in low-SES families, but minimal evidence of GxE interaction across the eight ages. A power calculation indicated that a sample size of about 5000 twin pairs is required to detect moderation of the genetic component of intelligence as small as 0.25, with about 80% power - a difference of 11% to 53% in heritability, in low- (−2 standard deviations, SD) and high-SES (+2 SD) families. With samples at each age of about this size, the present study found no moderation of the genetic effect on intelligence. However, we found the greater variance in low-SES families is due to moderation of the environmental effect – an environment-environment interaction. Conclusions: In a UK-representative sample, the genetic effect on intelligence is similar in low- and high-SES families. Children's shared experiences appear to explain the greater variation in intelligence in lower SES.

Suggested Citation

  • Ken B Hanscombe & Maciej Trzaskowski & Claire M A Haworth & Oliver S P Davis & Philip S Dale & Robert Plomin, 2012. "Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Children's Intelligence (IQ): In a UK-Representative Sample SES Moderates the Environmental, Not Genetic, Effect on IQ," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 7(2), pages 1-16, February.
    • Handle: RePEc:plo:pone00:0030320
    DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030320
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    1. Barr, Peter B. & Salvatore, Jessica E. & Maes, Hermine & Aliev, Fazil & Latvala, Antti & Viken, Richard & Rose, Richard J. & Kaprio, Jaakko & Dick, Danielle M., 2016. "Education and alcohol use: A study of gene-environment interaction in young adulthood," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 162(C), pages 158-167.
    2. Ksinan, Albert J. & Vazsonyi, Alexander T., 2021. "Understanding neighborhood disadvantage: A behavior genetic analysis," Journal of Criminal Justice, Elsevier, vol. 73(C).
    3. Paulus, Lena & Spinath, Frank M. & Hahn, Elisabeth, 2021. "How do educational inequalities develop? The role of socioeconomic status, cognitive ability, home environment, and self-efficacy along the educational path," Intelligence, Elsevier, vol. 86(C).
    4. Giannelis, Alexandros & Willoughby, Emily A. & Corley, Robin & Hopfer, Christian & Hewitt, John K. & Iacono, William G. & Anderson, Jacob & Rustichini, Aldo & Vrieze, Scott I. & McGue, Matt & Lee, Jam, 2023. "The association between saving disposition and financial distress: A genetically informed approach," Journal of Economic Psychology, Elsevier, vol. 96(C).
    5. Pesta, Bryan J. & Kirkegaard, Emil O.W. & te Nijenhuis, Jan & Lasker, Jordan & Fuerst, John G.R., 2020. "Racial and ethnic group differences in the heritability of intelligence: A systematic review and meta-analysis," Intelligence, Elsevier, vol. 78(C).
    6. Gottschling, J. & Hahn, E. & Beam, C.R. & Spinath, F.M. & Carroll, S. & Turkheimer, E., 2019. "Socioeconomic status amplifies genetic effects in middle childhood in a large German twin sample," Intelligence, Elsevier, vol. 72(C), pages 20-27.
    7. Luca Ronfani & Liza Vecchi Brumatti & Marika Mariuz & Veronica Tognin & Maura Bin & Valentina Ferluga & Alessandra Knowles & Marcella Montico & Fabio Barbone, 2015. "The Complex Interaction between Home Environment, Socioeconomic Status, Maternal IQ and Early Child Neurocognitive Development: A Multivariate Analysis of Data Collected in a Newborn Cohort Study," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 10(5), pages 1-13, May.
    8. Midouhas, Emily & Flouri, Eirini & Papachristou, Efstathios & Kokosi, Theodora, 2018. "Does general intelligence moderate the association between inflammation and psychological distress?," Intelligence, Elsevier, vol. 68(C), pages 30-36.
    9. Marion Spengler & Juliana Gottschling & Elisabeth Hahn & Elliot M Tucker-Drob & Claudia Harzer & Frank M Spinath, 2018. "Does the heritability of cognitive abilities vary as a function of parental education? Evidence from a German twin sample," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 13(5), pages 1-15, May.
    10. Andrzej Jopkiewicz & Stanisław Bogdan Nowak & Agata Maria Jopkiewicz & Magdalena Lelonek, 2020. "Socio-Economic Differences in the Development of Six-Year-Old Children in Rural Areas of East Poland," Child Indicators Research, Springer;The International Society of Child Indicators (ISCI), vol. 13(6), pages 2055-2067, December.
    11. von Stumm, Sophie & Kandaswamy, Radhika & Maxwell, Jessye, 2023. "Gene-environment interplay in early life cognitive development," Intelligence, Elsevier, vol. 98(C).
    12. Felipe González-Arango & Javier Corredor & María Angélica López-Ardila & María Camila Contreras-González & Juan Herrera-Santofimio & Jhonathan Jared González, 2022. "The duality of poverty: a replication of Mani et al. (2013) in Colombia," Theory and Decision, Springer, vol. 92(1), pages 39-73, February.
    13. Hur, Yoon-Mi, 2020. "Relationships between cognitive abilities and prosocial behavior are entirely explained by shared genetic influences: A Nigerian twin study," Intelligence, Elsevier, vol. 82(C).

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