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State of the Art of Low and Medium Voltage Direct Current (DC) Microgrids

Author

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  • Maria Fotopoulou

    (Chemical Process and Energy Resources Institute, Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, Thermi, GR-57001 Thessaloniki, Greece)

  • Dimitrios Rakopoulos

    (Chemical Process and Energy Resources Institute, Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, Thermi, GR-57001 Thessaloniki, Greece)

  • Dimitrios Trigkas

    (Chemical Process and Energy Resources Institute, Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, Thermi, GR-57001 Thessaloniki, Greece)

  • Fotis Stergiopoulos

    (Chemical Process and Energy Resources Institute, Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, Thermi, GR-57001 Thessaloniki, Greece)

  • Orestis Blanas

    (Chemical Process and Energy Resources Institute, Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, Thermi, GR-57001 Thessaloniki, Greece)

  • Spyros Voutetakis

    (Chemical Process and Energy Resources Institute, Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, Thermi, GR-57001 Thessaloniki, Greece)

Abstract

Direct current (DC) microgrids (MG) constitute a research field that has gained great attention over the past few years, challenging the well-established dominance of their alternating current (AC) counterparts in Low Voltage (LV) (up to 1.5 kV) as well as Medium Voltage (MV) applications (up to 50 kV). The main reasons behind this change are: (i) the ascending amalgamation of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS), which predominantly supply DC power to the energy mix that meets electrical power demand and (ii) the ascending use of electronic loads and other DC-powered devices by the end-users. In this sense, DC distribution provides a more efficient interface between the majority of Distributed Energy Resources (DER) and part of the total load of a MG. The early adopters of DC MGs include mostly buildings with high RES production, ships, data centers, electric vehicle (EV) charging stations and traction systems. However, the lack of expertise and the insufficient standards’ framework inhibit their wider spread. This review paper presents the state of the art of LV and MV DC MGs in terms of advantages/disadvantages over their AC counterparts, their interface with the AC main grid, topologies, control, applications, ancillary services and standardization issues. Overall, the aim of this review is to highlight the possibilities provided by DC MG architectures as well as the necessity for a solid/inclusive regulatory framework, which is their main weakness.

Suggested Citation

  • Maria Fotopoulou & Dimitrios Rakopoulos & Dimitrios Trigkas & Fotis Stergiopoulos & Orestis Blanas & Spyros Voutetakis, 2021. "State of the Art of Low and Medium Voltage Direct Current (DC) Microgrids," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(18), pages 1-27, September.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:14:y:2021:i:18:p:5595-:d:630480
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    5. Shahrukh Khan & Arshad Mahmood & Mohammad Zaid & Mohd Tariq & Chang-Hua Lin & Javed Ahmad & Basem Alamri & Ahmad Alahmadi, 2021. "A High Step-up DC-DC Converter Based on the Voltage Lift Technique for Renewable Energy Applications," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(19), pages 1-24, October.
    6. Marcio L. M. Amorim & Gabriel Augusto Ginja & João Paulo Carmo & Melkzedekue Moraes Alcântara Moreira & Adriano Almeida Goncalves Siqueira & Jose A. Afonso, 2022. "Low-Cost/High-Precision Smart Power Supply for Data Loggers," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(1), pages 1-27, December.
    7. Mohamed Zaery & Panbao Wang & Wei Wang & Dianguo Xu, 2022. "A Novel Optimal Power Allocation Control System with High Convergence Rate for DC Microgrids Cluster," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(11), pages 1-22, May.
    8. Lu Liu & Yun Zeng, 2023. "Intelligent ISSA-Based Non-Singular Terminal Sliding-Mode Control of DC–DC Boost Converter Feeding a Constant Power Load System," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(13), pages 1-23, June.
    9. Muhammad Saad & Yongfeng Ju & Husan Ali & Sami Ullah Jan & Dawar Awan & Shahbaz Khan & Abdul Wadood & Bakht Muhammad Khan & Akhtar Ali & Tahir Khurshaid, 2021. "Behavioral Modeling Paradigm for DC Nanogrid Based Distributed Energy Systems," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(23), pages 1-20, November.
    10. Zbigniew Sołjan & Maciej Zajkowski, 2022. "Extension and Correction of Budeanu Power Theory Based on Currents’ Physical Components (CPC) Theory for Single-Phase Systems," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(21), pages 1-18, November.
    11. Jonathan Andrés Basantes & Daniela Estefanía Paredes & Jacqueline Rosario Llanos & Diego Edmundo Ortiz & Claudio Danilo Burgos, 2023. "Energy Management System (EMS) Based on Model Predictive Control (MPC) for an Isolated DC Microgrid," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(6), pages 1-22, March.
    12. Rogkas, N. & Karampasakis, E. & Fotopoulou, M. & Rakopoulos, D., 2024. "Assessment of heat transfer mechanisms of a novel high-frequency inductive power transfer system and coupled simulation using FEA," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 300(C).
    13. Yangfan Chen & Yu Zhang, 2023. "DC Transformers in DC Distribution Systems," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(7), pages 1-19, March.
    14. Augusti Lindiya Susaikani & Subashini Nallusamy & Uma Dharmalingam & Yonis M. Buswig & Natarajan Prabaharan & Mohamed Salem, 2022. "Integrated PV–BESS-Fed High Gain Converter for an LED Lighting System in a Commercial Building," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(19), pages 1-22, September.

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