IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/iburev/v33y2024i1s0969593123001026.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

A problematization review of export assistance: Debates and future directions

Author

Listed:
  • Kahiya, Eldrede T.

Abstract

This review problematizes literature on export assistance, one of the oldest and most significant topics in export research. Problematization embraces selective but broad literature, reflexivity, hermeneutical reading of text, and inclusion of the author’s voice. The sample comprises 95 studies published between 1968 and 2022. The review makes two critical contributions. First, it offers a synopsis of extant knowledge through an organizing framework which highlights the roles of governments, export promotion agencies, foreign trade offices and trade support institutions, in the design and deployment of onshore and offshore export assistance. In so doing, the review demonstrates that scholarship on export assistance can be summarized in four I’s – impetus, interventions, initiatives, and impact. Second, it uses two-sided non-refutational arguments to elaborate that while export assistance is possibly the most mature construct in export research, there are numerous unresolved questions. The areas of debate offer a platform for guiding practice and for setting an agenda for future studies.

Suggested Citation

  • Kahiya, Eldrede T., 2024. "A problematization review of export assistance: Debates and future directions," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 33(1).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:iburev:v:33:y:2024:i:1:s0969593123001026
    DOI: 10.1016/j.ibusrev.2023.102202
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0969593123001026
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2023.102202?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Alexis Catanzaro & Christine Teyssier, 2021. "Export promotion programs, export capabilities, and risk management practices of internationalized SMEs," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 57(3), pages 1479-1503, October.
    2. Volpe Martincus, Christian & Carballo, Jerónimo, 2008. "Is export promotion effective in developing countries? Firm-level evidence on the intensive and the extensive margins of exports," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 76(1), pages 89-106, September.
    3. Wright, Mike & Wood, Geoffrey & Musacchio, Aldo & Okhmatovskiy, Ilya & Grosman, Anna & Doh, Jonathan P., 2021. "State capitalism in international context: Varieties and variations," Journal of World Business, Elsevier, vol. 56(2).
    4. Leonidas C Leonidou & Constatine S Katsikeas, 1996. "The Export Development Process: An Integrative Review of Empirical Models," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 27(3), pages 517-551, September.
    5. Cadot, Olivier & Fernandes, Ana M. & Gourdon, Julien & Mattoo, Aaditya, 2015. "Are the benefits of export support durable? Evidence from Tunisia," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 97(2), pages 310-324.
    6. Oscar Malca & Jesús Peña-Vinces & Francisco J Acedo, 2020. "Export promotion programmes as export performance catalysts for SMEs: insights from an emerging economy," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 55(3), pages 831-851, October.
    7. Masaaki Kotabe & Michael R Czinkota, 1992. "State Government Promotion of Manufacturing Exports: A Gap Analysis," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 23(4), pages 637-658, December.
    8. Cardoza, Guillermo & Fornes, Gaston & Farber, Vanina & Gonzalez Duarte, Roberto & Ruiz Gutierrez, Jaime, 2016. "Barriers and public policies affecting the international expansion of Latin American SMEs: Evidence from Brazil, Colombia, and Peru," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 69(6), pages 2030-2039.
    9. Tim Harcourt, 2009. "Double or Nothing? A Note on Exporter Targets," Australian Journal of Management, Australian School of Business, vol. 34(1), pages 143-147, June.
    10. Naidu, G. M. & Rao, T. R., 1993. "Public sector promotion of exports: A needs-based approach," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 27(1), pages 85-101, May.
    11. Andrew J. Cassey, 2014. "The Location of US States' Overseas Offices," Review of International Economics, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 22(2), pages 310-325, May.
    12. Zoltan J. Acs & Erik Stam & David B. Audretsch & Allan O’Connor, 2017. "The lineages of the entrepreneurial ecosystem approach," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 49(1), pages 1-10, June.
    13. Yu Ri Kim & Yasuyuki Todo & Daichi Shimamoto & Petr Matous, 2018. "Are seminars on export promotion effective? Evidence from a randomised controlled trial," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 41(11), pages 2954-2982, November.
    14. Christoph Moser & Thorsten Nestmann & Michael Wedow, 2008. "Political Risk and Export Promotion: Evidence from Germany," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 31(6), pages 781-803, June.
    15. Farok J. Contractor, 2022. "The world economy will need even more globalization in the post-pandemic 2021 decade," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 53(1), pages 156-171, February.
    16. Kumcu, Erdogan & Harcar, Talha & Kumcu, M. Ercan, 1995. "Managerial perceptions of the adequacy of export incentive programs : Implications for export-led economic development policy," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 32(2), pages 163-174, February.
    17. Otto Andersen, 1993. "On the Internationalization Process of Firms: A Critical Analysis," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 24(2), pages 209-231, June.
    18. Ahmed, Zafar U. & Mohamed, Osman & Johnson, James P. & Meng, Leong Yee, 2002. "Export promotion programs of Malaysian firms: an international marketing perspective," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 55(10), pages 831-843, October.
    19. Timothy J Wilkinson & Lance Eliot Brouthers, 2000. "Trade Shows, Trade Missions and State Governments: Increasing FDI and High-Tech Exports," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 31(4), pages 725-734, December.
    20. Priit Tinits & Carl F. Fey, 2022. "The Effects of Timing and Order of Government Support Mechanisms for SME Exports," Management International Review, Springer, vol. 62(2), pages 285-323, April.
    21. Stiglitz, Joseph E., 2021. "The proper role of government in the market economy: The case of the post-COVID recovery," Journal of Government and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 1(C).
    22. Paul, Justin & Criado, Alex Rialp, 2020. "The art of writing literature review: What do we know and what do we need to know?," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 29(4).
    23. Knight, Gary A. & Liesch, Peter W., 2016. "Internationalization: From incremental to born global," Journal of World Business, Elsevier, vol. 51(1), pages 93-102.
    24. Alexis Catanzaro & Karim Messeghem & Sylvie Sammut, 2019. "Effectiveness of Export Support Programs: Impact on the Relational Capital and International Performance of Early Internationalizing Small Businesses," Journal of Small Business Management, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 57(S2), pages 436-461, November.
    25. Roger W.T. Gill & Donald L. Brady, 1982. "A Comparative Study of U.S. Department of Commerce Directors’ Attitudes towards their Ability to Provide Export Assistance to small and Large Businesses in Selected States," Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, , vol. 7(1), pages 27-33, July.
    26. Kahiya, Eldrede T., 2020. "Context in international business: Entrepreneurial internationalization from a distant small open economy," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 29(1).
    27. Andrew K. Rose, 2007. "The Foreign Service and Foreign Trade: Embassies as Export Promotion," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 30(1), pages 22-38, January.
    28. Ryo Makioka, 2021. "The impact of export promotion with matchmaking on exports and service outsourcing," Review of International Economics, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 29(5), pages 1418-1450, November.
    29. Eldrede T. Kahiya & Dallas Delaney, 2023. "Exporters under siege: Dissecting trade policy responses to COVID-19," Journal of the International Council for Small Business, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 4(2), pages 103-127, April.
    30. Gabriel J. Felbermayr & Erdal Yalcin, 2013. "Export Credit Guarantees and Export Performance: An Empirical Analysis for Germany," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 36(8), pages 967-999, August.
    31. Gaur, Ajai & Kumar, Mukesh, 2018. "A systematic approach to conducting review studies: An assessment of content analysis in 25years of IB research," Journal of World Business, Elsevier, vol. 53(2), pages 280-289.
    32. Joseph Stiglitz, 2003. "Globalization and the economic role of the state in the new millennium," Industrial and Corporate Change, Oxford University Press and the Associazione ICC, vol. 12(1), pages 3-26, February.
    33. Shao, Jun Jie & Ariss, Akram AL, 2020. "Knowledge transfer between self-initiated expatriates and their organizations: Research propositions for managing SIEs," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 29(1).
    34. Timothy J. Wilkinson, 2006. "Entrepreneurial Climate and U.S. State Foreign Trade Offices as Predictors of Export Success," Journal of Small Business Management, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 44(1), pages 99-113, January.
    35. Paul Brewer, 2010. "A rejoinder on Australia’s export promotion programs," Australian Journal of Management, Australian School of Business, vol. 35(1), pages 95-98, April.
    36. Kirca, Ahmet H. & Cavusgil, S. Tamer & Hult, G. Tomas M., 2009. "The effects of national culture on market orientation: Conceptual framework and research propositions," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 18(2), pages 111-118, April.
    37. Zoltan J. Acs & Randall K. Morck & Bernard Yeung, 2008. "Entrepreneurship, Globalization and Public Policy," Chapters, in: Entrepreneurship, Growth and Public Policy, chapter 30, pages 430-446, Edward Elgar Publishing.
    38. Christian Volpe Martincus & Jerónimo Carballo, 2010. "Export Promotion: Bundled Services Work Better," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 33(12), pages 1718-1756, December.
    39. Ilgaz Arikan & Oded Shenkar, 2022. "Neglected elements: What we should cover more of in international business research," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 53(7), pages 1484-1507, September.
    40. Li, Min & He, Xinming & Sousa, Carlos M.P., 2017. "A review of the empirical research on export channel selection between 1979 and 2015," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 26(2), pages 303-323.
    41. Broocks, Annette & Van Biesebroeck, Johannes, 2017. "The impact of export promotion on export market entry," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 107(C), pages 19-33.
    42. John Hulland, 2020. "Conceptual review papers: revisiting existing research to develop and refine theory," AMS Review, Springer;Academy of Marketing Science, vol. 10(1), pages 27-35, June.
    43. Gerardo Patriotta, 2020. "Writing Impactful Review Articles," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 57(6), pages 1272-1276, September.
    44. Falahat, Mohammad & Lee, Yan Yin & Ramayah, T. & Soto-Acosta, Pedro, 2020. "Modelling the effects of institutional support and international knowledge on competitive capabilities and international performance: Evidence from an emerging economy," Journal of International Management, Elsevier, vol. 26(4).
    45. Mats Alvesson & Jörgen Sandberg, 2020. "The Problematizing Review: A Counterpoint to Elsbach and Van Knippenberg’s Argument for Integrative Reviews," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 57(6), pages 1290-1304, September.
    46. Leonidou, Leonidas C. & Katsikeas, Constantine S. & Coudounaris, Dafnis N., 2010. "Five decades of business research into exporting: A bibliographic analysis," Journal of International Management, Elsevier, vol. 16(1), pages 78-91, March.
    47. Leonidou, Leonidas C. & Katsikeas, Constantine S., 2010. "Integrative assessment of exporting research articles in business journals during the period 1960-2007," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 63(8), pages 879-887, August.
    48. Jai S. Mah & Chris Milner, 2005. "The Japanese Export Insurance Arrangements: Promotion or Subsidisation?," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 28(2), pages 231-241, February.
    49. Griffith, David A. & Czinkota, Michael R., 2012. "Release the constraints: Solving the problems of export financing in troublesome times," Business Horizons, Elsevier, vol. 55(3), pages 251-260.
    50. Nathalie Belhoste & Rachel Bocquet & Veronique Favre-Bonté & Frédéric Bally, 2019. "How do SMEs use support services during their internationalisation process: A comparative study of French traditional SMEs and INVs in Asia," Grenoble Ecole de Management (Post-Print) hal-02380381, HAL.
    51. Alvarez, Roberto, 2004. "Sources of export success in small- and medium-sized enterprises: the impact of public programs," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 13(3), pages 383-400, June.
    52. Naidu, G. M. & Cavusgil, S. Tamer & Murthy, B. Kinnera & Sarkar, Mitrabarun, 1997. "An export promotion model for India: Implications for public policy," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 6(2), pages 113-125, April.
    53. Brendan J Gray, 1997. "Profiling Managers to Improve Export Promotion Targeting," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 28(2), pages 387-420, June.
    54. Elsahn, Ziad & Earl, Anna, 2022. "Alternative ways of studying time in qualitative international business research: A review and future agenda," Journal of International Management, Elsevier, vol. 28(3).
    55. Wilkinson, Timothy & Brouthers, Lance Eliot, 2006. "Trade promotion and SME export performance," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 15(3), pages 233-252, June.
    56. Valentin F. Lang & Ms. Marina Mendes Tavares, 2018. "The Distribution of Gains from Globalization," IMF Working Papers 2018/054, International Monetary Fund.
    57. Marcel van den Berg & Ilke Van Beveren & Oscar Lemmers & Tommy Span & Adam N. Walker, 2019. "Public export credit insurance in the Netherlands: An input–output approach," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 42(9), pages 2774-2789, September.
    58. Karel Janda & Eva Michalikova & Jiri Skuhrovec, 2013. "Credit Support for Export: Robust Evidence from the Czech Republic," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 36(12), pages 1588-1610, December.
    59. Freixanet, Joan, 2012. "Export promotion programs: Their impact on companies’ internationalization performance and competitiveness," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 21(6), pages 1065-1086.
    60. Schembri, Joe & Tang, Yee Kwan & Fletcher, Margaret & Dimitratos, Pavlos, 2019. "How do European trade promotion organisations manage their stakeholders?," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 28(6), pages 1-1.
    61. Volpe Martincus, Christian & Carballo, Jerónimo, 2010. "Beyond the average effects: The distributional impacts of export promotion programs in developing countries," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 92(2), pages 201-214, July.
    62. Jai S. Mah, 2011. "Special and Differential Treatment of Developing Countries and Export Promotion Policies under the WTO," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 34(12), pages 1999-2018, December.
    63. Chan, Chui Shiam & Pattnaik, Chinmay, 2021. "Coevolution of home country support and internationalization of emerging market firms," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 30(4).
    64. Torres, Miguel Matos & Clegg, L. Jeremy & Varum, Celeste Amorim, 2016. "The missing link between awareness and use in the uptake of pro-internationalization incentives," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 25(2), pages 495-510.
    65. Andrew Delios, 2017. "The Death and Rebirth (?) of International Business Research," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 54(3), pages 391-397, May.
    66. Lederman, Daniel & Olarreaga, Marcelo & Payton, Lucy, 2010. "Export promotion agencies: Do they work?," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 91(2), pages 257-265, March.
    67. Salvador Gil & Rafael Llorca & José A. Martínez Serrano, 2008. "Measuring the impact of regional export promotion: The Spanish case," Papers in Regional Science, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 87(1), pages 139-146, March.
    68. F H Rolf Seringhaus & Guenther Botschen, 1991. "Cross-National Comparison of Export Promotion Services: The Views of Canadian and Austrian Companies," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 22(1), pages 115-133, March.
    69. Samuel Rabino, 1980. "Tax Incentive to Exports: Some Implications for Policy Makers," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 11(1), pages 74-84, March.
    70. Christian Helmers & Natalia Trofimenko, 2013. "The Use and Abuse of Export Subsidies: Evidence from Colombia," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 36(4), pages 465-486, April.
    71. Benjamin M Oviatt & Patricia Phillips McDougall, 1994. "Toward a Theory of International New ventures," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 25(1), pages 45-64, March.
    72. Volpe Martincus, Christian & Carballo, Jerónimo, 2010. "Beyond the average effects: The distributional impacts of export promotion programs in developing countries," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 92(2), pages 201-214, July.
    73. Kahiya, Eldrede T., 2018. "Five decades of research on export barriers: Review and future directions," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 27(6), pages 1172-1188.
    74. Wilkinson, Timothy J. & Brouthers, Lance Eliot, 2000. "An Evaluation of State Sponsored Promotion Programs," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 47(3), pages 229-236, March.
    75. Fischer, Eileen & Reuber, A Rebecca, 2003. "Targeting Export Support to SMEs: Owners' International Experience as a Segmentation Basis," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 20(1), pages 69-82, February.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Freixanet, Joan, 2022. "Export promotion programs: A system-based systematic review and agenda for future research," Journal of World Business, Elsevier, vol. 57(4).
    2. (ed.), 0. "Research Handbook on Economic Diplomacy," Books, Edward Elgar Publishing, number 16053.
    3. Priit Tinits & Carl F. Fey, 2022. "The Effects of Timing and Order of Government Support Mechanisms for SME Exports," Management International Review, Springer, vol. 62(2), pages 285-323, April.
    4. Stjepan Srhoj & Vanja Vitezic & Joachim Wagner, 2020. "Export boosting policies and firm behaviour: Review of empirical evidence around the world," Working Paper Series in Economics 395, University of Lüneburg, Institute of Economics.
    5. Ayob, Abu H. & Freixanet, Joan, 2014. "Insights into public export promotion programs in an emerging economy: The case of Malaysian SMEs," Evaluation and Program Planning, Elsevier, vol. 46(C), pages 38-46.
    6. Flávia de Holanda Schmidt & Jorge Ferreira da Silva, 2015. "Export Assistance: A Literature Review And Challenges For Future Research," Discussion Papers 0191, Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada - IPEA.
    7. Johannes Van Biesebroeck & Jozef Konings & Christian Volpe Martincus, 2016. "Did export promotion help firms weather the crisis?," Economic Policy, CEPR, CESifo, Sciences Po;CES;MSH, vol. 31(88), pages 653-702.
    8. Oscar Malca & Jesús Peña-Vinces & Francisco J Acedo, 2020. "Export promotion programmes as export performance catalysts for SMEs: insights from an emerging economy," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 55(3), pages 831-851, October.
    9. Ahmed Boutorat & Loe Franssen, 2023. "Economic missions and firm internationalization: evidence from the Netherlands," Review of World Economics (Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv), Springer;Institut für Weltwirtschaft (Kiel Institute for the World Economy), vol. 159(3), pages 787-826, August.
    10. Johannes Van Biesebroeck & Emily Yu & Shenjie Chen, 2015. "The impact of trade promotion services on Canadian exporter performance," Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d'économique, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 48(4), pages 1481-1512, November.
    11. Wilkinson, Timothy & Brouthers, Lance Eliot, 2006. "Trade promotion and SME export performance," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 15(3), pages 233-252, June.
    12. Joan Freixanet, 2014. "Innovation and internationalization: relationship and implications for management and public policy," International Journal of Entrepreneurial Knowledge, Center for International Scientific Research of VSO and VSPP, vol. 2(2), pages 57-75, December.
    13. Simona Comi & Laura Resmini, 2020. "Are export promotion programs effective in promoting the internalization of SMEs?," Economia Politica: Journal of Analytical and Institutional Economics, Springer;Fondazione Edison, vol. 37(2), pages 547-581, July.
    14. Aalto, Eero & Gustafsson, Robin, 2020. "Export Promotion Rationales and Impacts – A Review," ETLA Reports 100, The Research Institute of the Finnish Economy.
    15. Kahiya, Eldrede T., 2020. "Context in international business: Entrepreneurial internationalization from a distant small open economy," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 29(1).
    16. Defever, Fabrice & Reyes, José-Daniel & Riaño, Alejandro & Varela, Gonzalo, 2020. "All these worlds are yours, except india: The effectiveness of cash subsidies to export in nepal," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 128(C).
    17. Stephane Ruiz-Coupeau & Jaime Rodas-Monge & Raquel Florez-Lopez & Juan Manuel Ramon-Jeronimo, 2019. "Impact of Regional Public Agencies on Firms’ Internationalization Processes: Evidence from Case Studies," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 11(10), pages 1-16, May.
    18. Broocks, Annette & Van Biesebroeck, Johannes, 2017. "The impact of export promotion on export market entry," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 107(C), pages 19-33.
    19. Noémie Dominguez, 2018. "Promotion agencies and SMEs’ internationalization process: A blessing or a curse? [Agences de promotion et processus internationalisation des PME: bénédiction ou malédiction?]," Journal of International Entrepreneurship, Springer, vol. 16(1), pages 58-81, March.
    20. Ebadullah Akbari & Samad Aali & Yaghoub Alavi Matin & Morteza Mahmoudzadeh, 2021. "Evaluating Export Incentive Programs' Performance of Trade Promotion Organization of Iran on Export Performance: The Mediating Role of Exporting Companies' Marketing Implementation Capabilities and th," International Journal of Finance, Insurance and Risk Management, International Journal of Finance, Insurance and Risk Management, vol. 11(4), pages 3-23.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:iburev:v:33:y:2024:i:1:s0969593123001026. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/133/description#description .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.