IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/jobhdp/v184y2024ics0749597824000323.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Range goals as dual reference points

Author

Listed:
  • Wallace, Scott
  • Etkin, Jordan

Abstract

Goals are an important motivational tool, and goal setting plays a critical role in both the process and outcomes of goal pursuit. But while the literature on goal setting has largely focused on specific goals, emphasizing their benefits relative to “do your best” goals, an important alternative has largely been overlooked: range goals. Contributing to this gap, we propose a novel conceptualization of range goals as dual reference points, emphasizing the role of the two range endpoints as discrete targets during goal pursuit. In this research, we develop and empirically validate two key propositions: (1) that a range goal’s lower and upper endpoints serve as distinct reference points, and (2) that individuals can flexibly direct (and change) their focus between these two endpoints during goal pursuit. Building on these propositions, we predict and test a series of implications for managing range goal pursuit (e.g., timing feedback messages or structuring complex goal tasks to enhance performance), finding that range goal performance is greatest when positive or encouraging cues occur around the range’s lower endpoint. Finally, contrasting these insights with related findings in the context of specific goals, we test and discuss implications for goal setting (i.e., choosing to set a range vs. specific goal for a particular application). Six main empirical studies (plus five supplemental and one pilot study) support our conceptualization of range goals as dual reference points, shedding light on when and why range goals are a particularly effective motivational tool.

Suggested Citation

  • Wallace, Scott & Etkin, Jordan, 2024. "Range goals as dual reference points," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 184(C).
  • Handle: RePEc:eee:jobhdp:v:184:y:2024:i:c:s0749597824000323
    DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2024.104340
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749597824000323
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only

    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.obhdp.2024.104340?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Jordan Etkin & Rebecca K. Ratner, 2013. "Goal Pursuit, Now and Later: Temporal Compatibility of Different versus Similar Means," Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Research Inc., vol. 39(5), pages 1085-1099.
    2. Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, 2013. "Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk," World Scientific Book Chapters, in: Leonard C MacLean & William T Ziemba (ed.), HANDBOOK OF THE FUNDAMENTALS OF FINANCIAL DECISION MAKING Part I, chapter 6, pages 99-127, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd..
    3. Alex Markle & George Wu & Rebecca White & Aaron Sackett, 2018. "Goals as reference points in marathon running: A novel test of reference dependence," Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, Springer, vol. 56(1), pages 19-50, February.
    4. Kaitlin Woolley & Ayelet Fishbach, 2016. "For the Fun of It: Harnessing Immediate Rewards to Increase Persistence in Long-Term Goals," Journal of Consumer Research, Oxford University Press, vol. 42(6), pages 952-966.
    5. Latham, Gary P. & Locke, Edwin A., 1991. "Self-regulation through goal setting," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 50(2), pages 212-247, December.
    6. Maura L. Scott & Stephen M. Nowlis, 2013. "The Effect of Goal Specificity on Consumer Goal Reengagement," Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Research Inc., vol. 40(3), pages 444-459.
    7. Mento, Anthony J. & Steel, Robert P. & Karren, Ronald J., 1987. "A meta-analytic study of the effects of goal setting on task performance: 1966-1984," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 39(1), pages 52-83, February.
    8. Colby, Helen & Chapman, Gretchen B., 2013. "Savings, subgoals, and reference points," Judgment and Decision Making, Cambridge University Press, vol. 8(1), pages 16-24, January.
    9. Heath, Chip, 1999. "On the Social Psychology of Agency Relationships: Lay Theories of Motivation Overemphasize Extrinsic Incentives," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 78(1), pages 25-62, April.
    10. Stamatogiannakis, Antonios & Chattopadhyay, Amitava & Chakravarti, Dipankar, 2018. "Attainment versus maintenance goals: Perceived difficulty and impact on goal choice," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 149(C), pages 17-34.
    11. Rusou, Zohar & Amar, Moty & Ayal, Shahar, 2020. "The psychology of task management: The smaller tasks trap," Judgment and Decision Making, Cambridge University Press, vol. 15(4), pages 586-599, July.
    12. Scott G Wallace & Jordan Etkin & Johar GitaEditor & Rajesh BagchiAssociate Editor, 2018. "How Goal Specificity Shapes Motivation: A Reference Points Perspective," Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Research Inc., vol. 44(5), pages 1033-1051.
    13. Ran Kivetz & Oleg Urminsky & Yuhuang Zheng, 2006. "The Goal-Gradient Hypothesis Resurrected: Purchase Acceleration, Illusionary Goal Progress, and Customer Retention," Natural Field Experiments 00658, The Field Experiments Website.
    14. Wright, Patrick M. & Kacmar, K. Michele, 1994. "Goal Specificity as a Determinant of Goal Commitment and Goal Change," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 59(2), pages 242-260, August.
    15. Locke, Edwin A. & Chah, Dong-Ok & Harrison, Scott & Lustgarten, Nancy, 1989. "Separating the effects of goal specificity from goal level," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 43(2), pages 270-287, April.
    16. Sharif, Marissa A. & Shu, Suzanne B., 2021. "Nudging persistence after failure through emergency reserves," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 163(C), pages 17-29.
    17. Louro, M.J.S. & Pieters, R. & Zeelenberg, M., 2007. "Dynamics of multiple goal pursuit," Other publications TiSEM fcfc1f8f-6eae-41bb-af23-0, Tilburg University, School of Economics and Management.
    18. Huang, Szu-chi & Jin, Liyin & Zhang, Ying, 2017. "Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 141(C), pages 1-15.
    19. Minjung Koo & Ayelet Fishbach, 2012. "The Small-Area Hypothesis: Effects of Progress Monitoring on Goal Adherence," Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Research Inc., vol. 39(3), pages 493-509.
    20. Jordan Etkin & Rebecca K. Ratner, 2012. "The Dynamic Impact of Variety among Means on Motivation," Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Research Inc., vol. 38(6), pages 1076-1092.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Scott G Wallace & Jordan Etkin & Johar GitaEditor & Rajesh BagchiAssociate Editor, 2018. "How Goal Specificity Shapes Motivation: A Reference Points Perspective," Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Research Inc., vol. 44(5), pages 1033-1051.
    2. Kunter Gunasti & Timucin Ozcan, 2019. "The role of scale-induced round numbers and goal specificity on goal accomplishment perceptions," Marketing Letters, Springer, vol. 30(2), pages 207-217, June.
    3. Stamatogiannakis, Antonios & Chattopadhyay, Amitava & Chakravarti, Dipankar, 2018. "Attainment versus maintenance goals: Perceived difficulty and impact on goal choice," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 149(C), pages 17-34.
    4. Kim, Hye-Young & Urminsky, Oleg, 2025. "The different roads not taken: considering diverse foregone alternatives motivates future goal persistence," LSE Research Online Documents on Economics 121459, London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Library.
    5. Gutt, Dominik & von Rechenberg, Tobias & Kundisch, Dennis, 2020. "Goal achievement, subsequent user effort and the moderating role of goal difficulty," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 106(C), pages 277-287.
    6. Tobias Mutter & Dennis Kundisch, 2014. "Goals as Reference Points: Empirical Evidence from a Virtual Reward System," Working Papers Dissertations 19, Paderborn University, Faculty of Business Administration and Economics.
    7. Dennis Kundisch & Tobias Rechenberg, 2017. "Does the Framing of Progress Towards Virtual Rewards Matter?," Business & Information Systems Engineering: The International Journal of WIRTSCHAFTSINFORMATIK, Springer;Gesellschaft für Informatik e.V. (GI), vol. 59(4), pages 207-222, August.
    8. Baek, Tae Hyun & Yoon, Sukki, 2020. "Looking forward, looking back: The impact of goal progress and time urgency on consumer responses to mobile reward apps," Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Elsevier, vol. 54(C).
    9. Huang, Szu-chi & Jin, Liyin & Zhang, Ying, 2017. "Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 141(C), pages 1-15.
    10. Ozcan, Timucin & Hair, Michael & Gunasti, Kunter, 2024. "How reaching numerical roundness on subgoals affects the completion of superordinate goals," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 177(C).
    11. Camilleri, Adrian R. & Dankova, Katarina & Ortiz, Jose M. & Neelim, Ananta, 2023. "Increasing worker motivation using a reward scheme with probabilistic elements," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 177(C).
    12. Park, Sohyeon & Kim, Kacy & Park, Seolwoo & Choi, Yung Kyun & Yoon, Sukki, 2023. "Cancel anytime!: How easy cancellation options enhance purchase intentions for services that require long-term commitments," Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Elsevier, vol. 75(C).
    13. Haoyu Liu & Lifeng Yang & Duane T. Wegener, 2023. "Effects of labeling on risk taking in “leveling-up” decisions: ascending versus descending permutations and ending in terminal values," Marketing Letters, Springer, vol. 34(1), pages 125-138, March.
    14. Evan Weingarten & Sudeep Bhatia & Barbara Mellers, 2019. "Multiple Goals as Reference Points: One Failure Makes Everything Else Feel Worse," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 65(7), pages 3337-3352, July.
    15. Paulo B. Goes & Chenhui Guo & Mingfeng Lin, 2016. "Do Incentive Hierarchies Induce User Effort? Evidence from an Online Knowledge Exchange," Information Systems Research, INFORMS, vol. 27(3), pages 497-516, September.
    16. Rablen, Matthew D., 2010. "Performance targets, effort and risk-taking," Journal of Economic Psychology, Elsevier, vol. 31(4), pages 687-697, August.
    17. Hsiaw, Alice, 2018. "Goal bracketing and self-control," Games and Economic Behavior, Elsevier, vol. 111(C), pages 100-121.
    18. Zohar Rusou & Moty Amar & Shahar Ayal, 2020. "The psychology of task management: The smaller tasks trap," Judgment and Decision Making, Society for Judgment and Decision Making, vol. 15(4), pages 586-599, July.
    19. Baron, Robert A. & Mueller, Brandon A. & Wolfe, Marcus T., 2016. "Self-efficacy and entrepreneurs' adoption of unattainable goals: The restraining effects of self-control," Journal of Business Venturing, Elsevier, vol. 31(1), pages 55-71.
    20. Huang, Yunhui & Jia, Yanli, 2019. "Remaining focus increases task evaluation and future task perseverance," International Journal of Research in Marketing, Elsevier, vol. 36(2), pages 251-263.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:jobhdp:v:184:y:2024:i:c:s0749597824000323. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/obhdp .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.