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A Third Emerging Stage for the Current Digital Society? Optimal Parenting Styles in Spain, the United States, Germany, and Brazil

Author

Listed:
  • Fernando Garcia

    (Department of Methodology of the Behavioral Sciences, University of Valencia, Av. Blasco Ibanez, 21, 46010 Valencia, Spain)

  • Emilia Serra

    (Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Valencia, Av. Blasco Ibanez, 21, 46010 Valencia, Spain)

  • Oscar F. Garcia

    (Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Valencia, Av. Blasco Ibanez, 21, 46010 Valencia, Spain)

  • Isabel Martinez

    (Department of Psychology, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda de los Alfares 44, 16071 Cuenca, Spain)

  • Edie Cruise

    (Department of Economics and Social Work, University of Trier, Universitätsring 15, D-54296 Trier, Germany)

Abstract

We propose a new paradigm with three historical stages for an optimal parenting style (i.e., indulgent parenting style), which extends the traditional paradigm of only two stages (i.e., authoritarian and authoritative parenting styles). The three stages concur, at the same time, in different environments, context, and cultures. We studied the third stage for optimal parent–child relationships through the offspring’s personal and social well-being, with four adolescent samples from 11 to 19 years old (52.2% girls) from Spain ( n = 689), the United States ( n = 488), Germany ( n = 606), and Brazil ( n = 672). The offspring’s personal well-being was measured through self-esteem (academic, social, emotional, family, and physical), while social well-being was measured with the internalization of self-transcendence (universalism and benevolence) and conservation values (security, conformity, and tradition). The parent–child parenting style was measured through parental warmth and strictness, and the adolescents’ parents were classified into one of four groups (indulgent, authoritarian, authoritative, and neglectful). Remarkably, the greatest personal well-being was found for adolescents raised with higher parental warmth and lower parental strictness (i.e., indulgent), and the greatest social well-being was found for adolescents raised with higher parental warmth (i.e., indulgent and authoritative; p < 0.05 for all countries). Consistently, poorer personal well-being and social well-being were associated with less parental warmth (i.e., authoritarian and neglectful). Findings suggest that the parent–child relationships analyzed have a common pattern associated with personal and social well-being that coincide with a proposed third stage.

Suggested Citation

  • Fernando Garcia & Emilia Serra & Oscar F. Garcia & Isabel Martinez & Edie Cruise, 2019. "A Third Emerging Stage for the Current Digital Society? Optimal Parenting Styles in Spain, the United States, Germany, and Brazil," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 16(13), pages 1-20, July.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:16:y:2019:i:13:p:2333-:d:244922
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    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Tanja C. Rothrauff & Teresa M. Cooney & Jeong Shin An, 2009. "Remembered Parenting Styles and Adjustment in Middle and Late Adulthood," The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, The Gerontological Society of America, vol. 64(1), pages 137-146.
    2. Paloma Alonso-Stuyck, 2019. "Which Parenting Style Encourages Healthy Lifestyles in Teenage Children? Proposal for a Model of Integrative Parenting Styles," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 16(11), pages 1-7, June.
    3. Mai Stafford & Catharine R Gale & Gita Mishra & Marcus Richards & Stephanie Black & Diana L Kuh, 2015. "Childhood Environment and Mental Wellbeing at Age 60-64 Years: Prospective Evidence from the MRC National Survey of Health and Development," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 10(6), pages 1-12, June.
    4. David Moreno-Ruiz & Estefanía Estévez & Teresa I. Jiménez & Sergio Murgui, 2018. "Parenting Style and Reactive and Proactive Adolescent Violence: Evidence from Spain," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 15(12), pages 1-13, November.
    5. Oscar F. Garcia & Emilia Serra, 2019. "Raising Children with Poor School Performance: Parenting Styles and Short- and Long-Term Consequences for Adolescent and Adult Development," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 16(7), pages 1-24, March.
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