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Keyhole fluctuation and pore formation mechanisms during laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing

Author

Listed:
  • Yuze Huang

    (University College London
    Research Complex at Harwell)

  • Tristan G. Fleming

    (Queen’s University)

  • Samuel J. Clark

    (University College London
    Research Complex at Harwell
    Argonne National Laboratory)

  • Sebastian Marussi

    (University College London
    Research Complex at Harwell)

  • Kamel Fezzaa

    (Argonne National Laboratory)

  • Jeyan Thiyagalingam

    (Science and Technology Facilities Council)

  • Chu Lun Alex Leung

    (University College London
    Research Complex at Harwell)

  • Peter D. Lee

    (University College London
    Research Complex at Harwell)

Abstract

Keyhole porosity is a key concern in laser powder-bed fusion (LPBF), potentially impacting component fatigue life. However, some keyhole porosity formation mechanisms, e.g., keyhole fluctuation, collapse and bubble growth and shrinkage, remain unclear. Using synchrotron X-ray imaging we reveal keyhole and bubble behaviour, quantifying their formation dynamics. The findings support the hypotheses that: (i) keyhole porosity can initiate not only in unstable, but also in the transition keyhole regimes created by high laser power-velocity conditions, causing fast radial keyhole fluctuations (2.5–10 kHz); (ii) transition regime collapse tends to occur part way up the rear-wall; and (iii) immediately after keyhole collapse, bubbles undergo rapid growth due to pressure equilibration, then shrink due to metal-vapour condensation. Concurrent with condensation, hydrogen diffusion into the bubble slows the shrinkage and stabilises the bubble size. The keyhole fluctuation and bubble evolution mechanisms revealed here may guide the development of control systems for minimising porosity.

Suggested Citation

  • Yuze Huang & Tristan G. Fleming & Samuel J. Clark & Sebastian Marussi & Kamel Fezzaa & Jeyan Thiyagalingam & Chu Lun Alex Leung & Peter D. Lee, 2022. "Keyhole fluctuation and pore formation mechanisms during laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 13(1), pages 1-11, December.
    • Handle: RePEc:nat:natcom:v:13:y:2022:i:1:d:10.1038_s41467-022-28694-x
    DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28694-x
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Zhengtao Gan & Orion L. Kafka & Niranjan Parab & Cang Zhao & Lichao Fang & Olle Heinonen & Tao Sun & Wing Kam Liu, 2021. "Universal scaling laws of keyhole stability and porosity in 3D printing of metals," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 12(1), pages 1-8, December.
    2. Minh-Son Pham & Bogdan Dovgyy & Paul A. Hooper & Christopher M. Gourlay & Alessandro Piglione, 2020. "The role of side-branching in microstructure development in laser powder-bed fusion," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 11(1), pages 1-12, December.
    3. John H. Martin & Brennan D. Yahata & Jacob M. Hundley & Justin A. Mayer & Tobias A. Schaedler & Tresa M. Pollock, 2017. "3D printing of high-strength aluminium alloys," Nature, Nature, vol. 549(7672), pages 365-369, September.
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    Cited by:

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    2. Zen-Hao Lai & Siguang Xu & Samuel J. Clark & Kamel Fezzaa & Jingjing Li, 2024. "Unveiling mechanisms and onset threshold of humping in high-speed laser welding," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-9, December.
    3. Kai Zhang & Yunhui Chen & Sebastian Marussi & Xianqiang Fan & Maureen Fitzpatrick & Shishira Bhagavath & Marta Majkut & Bratislav Lukic & Kudakwashe Jakata & Alexander Rack & Martyn A. Jones & Junji S, 2024. "Pore evolution mechanisms during directed energy deposition additive manufacturing," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-14, December.
    4. Wu, Jianzhao & Zhang, Chaoyong & Giam, Amanda & Chia, Hou Yi & Cao, Huajun & Ge, Wenjun & Yan, Wentao, 2024. "Physics-assisted transfer learning metamodels to predict bead geometry and carbon emission in laser butt welding," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 359(C).
    5. David Guirguis & Conrad Tucker & Jack Beuth, 2024. "Accelerating process development for 3D printing of new metal alloys," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-12, December.

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