Daily Groundwater Level Prediction and Uncertainty Using LSTM Coupled with PMI and Bootstrap Incorporating Teleconnection Patterns Information

Daily groundwater level is an indicator of groundwater resources. Accurate and reliable groundwater level (GWL) prediction is crucial for groundwater resources management and land subsidence risk assessment. In this study, a representative deep learning model, long short-term memory (LSTM), is adopted to predict groundwater level with the selected predictors by partial mutual information (PMI), and bootstrap is employed to generate different samples combination for training many LSTM models, and the predicted values by many LSTM models are used for the uncertainty assessment of groundwater level prediction. Two wells of different climate zones in the USA were used as a case study. Different significant predictors of GWL for two wells were identified by PMI from candidate predictors incorporating teleconnection patterns information. The results show that GWL is significantly affected by antecedent GWL, AO, Niño 3.4, Niño 1 + 2, and precipitation in humid areas, and by antecedent GWL, AO, Niño 3.4, Niño 3, Niño 1 + 2, and PNA in arid areas. Predictor selection can assist in improving the prediction performance of the LSTM model. The relationship between GWL and significant predictors were modeled by the LSTM model, and it achieved higher accuracy in humid areas, while the performance in arid areas was poorer due to limited precipitation information. The performance of LSTM was improved by increasing correlation coefficient ( R 2 ) values by 10% and 25% for 2 wells compared to generalized regression neural network (GRNN). Three uncertainty evaluation metrics indicate that LSTM reduced the uncertainty compared to GRNN model. LSTM coupling with PMI and bootstrap can be a promising approach for accurate and reliable groundwater level prediction for different climate zones.