IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/wdevel/v148y2021ics0305750x21002862.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Stepping Up versus Stepping Out: On the outcomes and drivers of two alternative climate change adaptation strategies of smallholders

Author

Listed:
  • Islam, Md. Mofakkarul
  • Sarker, Md. Asaduzzaman
  • Al Mamun, Md. Abdullah
  • Mamun-ur-Rashid, Md.
  • Roy, Debashis

Abstract

Which of the two climate change adaptation strategies – adjusting or improving farming (defined as Stepping Up) versus reducing or exiting farming (defined as Stepping Out) – provides better developmental outcomes for smallholder farmers? Are the drivers of these two strategies different? Do the outcomes and drivers vary according to farmland holding size? We investigated these unanswered questions, inspired primarily by a widespread but unverified suggestion that stepping out of farming can be a better option for smallholders. We utilised recent survey data from over eight hundred smallholder households located in climatic hazard-prone areas in Bangladesh. We applied a holistic Driver-Strategy-Outcome analytical framework and rigorous statistical methods, including index-based data aggregation, and Structural Equation Modelling with ‘mediation’ and ‘moderation’ analyses. Contrary to widespread speculations, we found that Stepping Out had a large negative effect on smallholders’ livelihood Outcomes; while Stepping Up had a moderate, but positive effect. The natural-environmental Drivers of Stepping Up and Stepping Out were similar; however, the psychological-institutional Drivers of each differed, with the same factor acting as a driver for one strategy whilst as a deterrent for the other. We found significant ‘mediatory’ effects of both the adaptation Strategies on Outcomes as well as significant ‘moderation’ effects of farmland holding size on the Drivers and Outcomes, with the positive effect of Stepping Up observed for smallholders owing lands of <2.5 acres only. We call for relevant policies and interventions to exercise caution in promoting smallholders’ exit from agriculture, and to adopt appropriate mitigating measures to manage such a transition. Moreover, smallholder agricultural development initiatives should not discount even the ‘smallest of smallholders’ and support them through ‘diverse and complementary innovations’ as well as ‘tailored’ institutional support services, especially for those living in proximity to hazard hotspots.

Suggested Citation

  • Islam, Md. Mofakkarul & Sarker, Md. Asaduzzaman & Al Mamun, Md. Abdullah & Mamun-ur-Rashid, Md. & Roy, Debashis, 2021. "Stepping Up versus Stepping Out: On the outcomes and drivers of two alternative climate change adaptation strategies of smallholders," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 148(C).
  • Handle: RePEc:eee:wdevel:v:148:y:2021:i:c:s0305750x21002862
    DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105671
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X21002862
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only

    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105671?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Imai, Katsushi S. & Gaiha, Raghav & Garbero, Alessandra, 2017. "Poverty reduction during the rural–urban transformation: Rural development is still more important than urbanisation," Journal of Policy Modeling, Elsevier, vol. 39(6), pages 963-982.
    2. Bina Agarwal & Ankush Agrawal, 2017. "Do farmers really like farming? Indian farmers in transition," Oxford Development Studies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 45(4), pages 460-478, October.
    3. Wubneshe Dessalegn Biru & Manfred Zeller & Tim K. Loos, 2020. "Correction to: The Impact of Agricultural Technologies on Poverty and Vulnerability of Smallholders in Ethiopia: A Panel Data Analysis," Social Indicators Research: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal for Quality-of-Life Measurement, Springer, vol. 148(1), pages 351-351, February.
    4. Tittonell, Pablo, 2014. "Livelihood strategies, resilience and transformability in African agroecosystems," Agricultural Systems, Elsevier, vol. 126(C), pages 3-14.
    5. Uttam Khanal & Clevo Wilson & Viet-Ngu Hoang & Boon Lee, 2019. "Impact of community-based organizations on climate change adaptation in agriculture: empirical evidence from Nepal," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 21(2), pages 621-635, April.
    6. Ajzen, Icek, 1991. "The theory of planned behavior," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 50(2), pages 179-211, December.
    7. Wubneshe Dessalegn Biru & Manfred Zeller & Tim K. Loos, 2020. "The Impact of Agricultural Technologies on Poverty and Vulnerability of Smallholders in Ethiopia: A Panel Data Analysis," Social Indicators Research: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal for Quality-of-Life Measurement, Springer, vol. 147(2), pages 517-544, January.
    8. Deon Filmer & Lant Pritchett, 2001. "Estimating Wealth Effects Without Expenditure Data—Or Tears: An Application To Educational Enrollments In States Of India," Demography, Springer;Population Association of America (PAA), vol. 38(1), pages 115-132, February.
    9. Tanya M. Kerssen, 2015. "Food sovereignty and the quinoa boom: challenges to sustainable re-peasantisation in the southern Altiplano of Bolivia," Third World Quarterly, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 36(3), pages 489-507, March.
    10. Mustapha A. Sadiq & John K. M. Kuwornu & Ramatu M. Al-Hassan & Suhiyini I. Alhassan, 2019. "Assessing Maize Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change and Variability in Ghana," Agriculture, MDPI, vol. 9(5), pages 1-17, April.
    11. Barbier,Edward B., 2015. "Climate change impacts on rural poverty in low-elevation coastal zones," Policy Research Working Paper Series 7475, The World Bank.
    12. Barbara Neumann & Athanasios T Vafeidis & Juliane Zimmermann & Robert J Nicholls, 2015. "Future Coastal Population Growth and Exposure to Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Flooding - A Global Assessment," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 10(3), pages 1-34, March.
    13. Moene, Karl Ove, 1992. "Poverty and Landownership," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 82(1), pages 52-64, March.
    14. W. Neil Adger, 2003. "Social Capital, Collective Action, and Adaptation to Climate Change," Economic Geography, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 79(4), pages 387-404, October.
    15. S. Nazrul Islam & John Winkel, 2017. "Climate Change and Social Inequality," Working Papers 152, United Nations, Department of Economics and Social Affairs.
    16. Khan, Imran & Lei, Hongdou & Shah, Irshad Ali & Ali, Imad & Khan, Inayat & Muhammad, Ihsan & Huo, Xuexi & Javed, Tehseen, 2020. "Farm households’ risk perception, attitude and adaptation strategies in dealing with climate change: Promise and perils from rural Pakistan," Land Use Policy, Elsevier, vol. 91(C).
    17. M. S. Iftekhar, 2006. "Conservation and management of the Bangladesh coastal ecosystem: Overview of an integrated approach," Natural Resources Forum, Blackwell Publishing, vol. 30(3), pages 230-237, August.
    18. AfDB AfDB, . "Report of the High Level Panel - Investing in Africa’s Future," High Level Panel Report, African Development Bank, number 97 edited by AfDB AfDB.
    19. Zereyesus, Yacob A. & Embaye, Weldensie T. & Tsiboe, Francis & Amanor-Boadu, Vincent, 2017. "Implications of Non-Farm Work to Vulnerability to Food Poverty-Recent Evidence From Northern Ghana," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 91(C), pages 113-124.
    20. Md Mofakkarul Islam & Md Abdullah Mamun, 2020. "Beyond the risks to food availability – linking climatic hazard vulnerability with the food access of delta-dwelling households," Food Security: The Science, Sociology and Economics of Food Production and Access to Food, Springer;The International Society for Plant Pathology, vol. 12(1), pages 37-58, February.
    21. Burnham, Morey & Ma, Zhao, 2018. "Multi-Scalar Pathways to Smallholder Adaptation," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 108(C), pages 249-262.
    22. Glendenning, Claire J. & Babu, Suresh & Asenso-Okyere, Kwadwo, 2010. "Review of agricultural extension in India: Are farmers' information needs being met?," IFPRI discussion papers 1048, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
    23. Tyhra Carolyn Kumasi & Philip Antwi-Agyei & Kwasi Obiri-Danso, 2019. "Small-holder farmers’ climate change adaptation practices in the Upper East Region of Ghana," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 21(2), pages 745-762, April.
    24. Lowder, Sarah K. & Skoet, Jakob & Raney, Terri, 2016. "The Number, Size, and Distribution of Farms, Smallholder Farms, and Family Farms Worldwide," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 87(C), pages 16-29.
    25. Andaleeb Rahman & Sumit Mishra, 2020. "Does Non-farm Income Affect Food Security? Evidence from India," Journal of Development Studies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 56(6), pages 1190-1209, June.
    26. David J. Kaczan & Jennifer Orgill-Meyer, 2020. "The impact of climate change on migration: a synthesis of recent empirical insights," Climatic Change, Springer, vol. 158(3), pages 281-300, February.
    27. Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Climate Analytics, 2013. "Turn Down the Heat : Climate Extremes, Regional Impacts, and the Case for Resilience [Bajemos la temperatura : fenómenos climáticos extremos, impactos regionales y posibidades de adaptación - resum," World Bank Publications - Books, The World Bank Group, number 14000.
    28. Hansen, James & Hellin, Jon & Rosenstock, Todd & Fisher, Eleanor & Cairns, Jill & Stirling, Clare & Lamanna, Christine & van Etten, Jacob & Rose, Alison & Campbell, Bruce, 2019. "Climate risk management and rural poverty reduction," Agricultural Systems, Elsevier, vol. 172(C), pages 28-46.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Qi Sun & Chao Fu & Yunli Bai & Ayub M. O. Oduor & Baodong Cheng, 2023. "Livelihood Diversification and Residents’ Welfare: Evidence from Maasai Mara National Reserve," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(5), pages 1-21, February.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Bauer, Tina & de Jong, Wil & Ingram, Verina & Arts, Bas & Pacheco, Pablo, 2022. "Thriving in turbulent times: Livelihood resilience and vulnerability assessment of Bolivian Indigenous forest households," Land Use Policy, Elsevier, vol. 119(C).
    2. Mamoudou Ba & Amar Anwar & Mazhar Mughal, 2021. "Non‐farm employment and poverty reduction in Mauritania," Journal of International Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 33(3), pages 490-514, April.
    3. Priti Khatri & Prashant Kumar & Kaushlesh Singh Shakya & Marios C. Kirlas & Kamal Kant Tiwari, 2024. "Understanding the intertwined nature of rising multiple risks in modern agriculture and food system," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 26(9), pages 24107-24150, September.
    4. Agarwal, Bina, 2018. "Can group farms outperform individual family farms? Empirical insights from India," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 108(C), pages 57-73.
    5. Usman Alhassan & Emmanuel Umoru Haruna, 2024. "Rural farmers’ perceptions of and adaptations to climate change in Sub-Saharan Africa: Does climate-smart agriculture (CSA) matter in Nigeria and Ethiopia?," Environmental Economics and Policy Studies, Springer;Society for Environmental Economics and Policy Studies - SEEPS, vol. 26(3), pages 613-652, July.
    6. Theodrose Sisay & Kindie Tesfaye & Mengistu Ketema & Nigussie Dechassa & Mezegebu Getnet, 2023. "Climate-Smart Agriculture Technologies and Determinants of Farmers’ Adoption Decisions in the Great Rift Valley of Ethiopia," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(4), pages 1-12, February.
    7. Rebecca Jo Stormes Newman & Claudia Capitani & Colin Courtney-Mustaphi & Jessica Paula Rose Thorn & Rebecca Kariuki & Charis Enns & Robert Marchant, 2020. "Integrating Insights from Social-Ecological Interactions into Sustainable Land Use Change Scenarios for Small Islands in the Western Indian Ocean," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 12(4), pages 1-22, February.
    8. Lawrence Guodaar & Douglas K. Bardsley & Jungho Suh, 2021. "Indigenous adaptation to climate change risks in northern Ghana," Climatic Change, Springer, vol. 166(1), pages 1-20, May.
    9. Zheng, Hongyun & Ma, Wanglin, 2023. "Impact of agricultural commercialization on dietary diversity and vulnerability to poverty: Insights from Chinese rural households," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 80(C), pages 558-569.
    10. Winkel, Thierry & Núñez-Carrasco, Lizbeth & Cruz, Pablo José & Egan, Nancy & Sáez-Tonacca, Luís & Cubillos-Celis, Priscilla & Poblete-Olivera, Camila & Zavalla-Nanco, Natalia & Miño-Baes, Bárbara & Vi, 2019. "Mobilizing common biocultural heritage for the socioeconomic inclusion of small farmers: panarchy of two case studies on quinoa in Chile and Bolivia," SocArXiv qwtu5, Center for Open Science.
    11. Abebe, Meseret Birhane & Endale, Kefyalew, 2023. "The Impact of Improved Seed Adoption on Nutrition Outcome: A Panel Endogenous Switching Regression Analysis," EfD Discussion Paper 23-1, Environment for Development, University of Gothenburg.
    12. Bekele Hundie Kotu & Abdul Rahman Nurudeen & Francis Muthoni & Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon & Fred Kizito, 2022. "Potential impact of groundnut production technology on welfare of smallholder farmers in Ghana," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 17(1), pages 1-22, January.
    13. Muhammad Irshad Ahmad & Les Oxley & Hengyun Ma, 2020. "What Makes Farmers Exit Farming: A Case Study of Sindh Province, Pakistan," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 12(8), pages 1-17, April.
    14. Guiomar, N. & Godinho, S. & Pinto-Correia, T. & Almeida, M. & Bartolini, F. & Bezák, P. & Biró, M. & Bjørkhaug, H. & Bojnec, Š. & Brunori, G. & Corazzin, M. & Czekaj, M. & Davidova, S. & Kania, J. & K, 2018. "Typology and distribution of small farms in Europe: Towards a better picture," Land Use Policy, Elsevier, vol. 75(C), pages 784-798.
    15. Martey, Edward & Kuwornu, John K.M., 2021. "Perceptions of Climate Variability and Soil Fertility Management Choices Among Smallholder Farmers in Northern Ghana," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 180(C).
    16. Ghanian, Mansour & M. Ghoochani, Omid & Dehghanpour, Mojtaba & Taqipour, Milad & Taheri, Fatemeh & Cotton, Matthew, 2020. "Understanding farmers’ climate adaptation intention in Iran: A protection-motivation extended model," Land Use Policy, Elsevier, vol. 94(C).
    17. Banchayehu Tessema Assefa & Jordan Chamberlin & Martin K. van Ittersum & Pytrik Reidsma, 2021. "Usage and Impacts of Technologies and Management Practices in Ethiopian Smallholder Maize Production," Agriculture, MDPI, vol. 11(10), pages 1-19, September.
    18. Robinson, Lance W. & Ericksen, Polly J. & Chesterman, Sabrina & Worden, Jeffrey S., 2015. "Sustainable intensification in drylands: What resilience and vulnerability can tell us," Agricultural Systems, Elsevier, vol. 135(C), pages 133-140.
    19. Sarah Alobo Loison, 2019. "Household livelihood diversification and gender: panel evidence from rural Kenya," Post-Print hal-02618651, HAL.
    20. Lowder, Sarah K. & Sánchez, Marco V. & Bertini, Raffaele, 2021. "Which farms feed the world and has farmland become more concentrated?," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 142(C).

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:wdevel:v:148:y:2021:i:c:s0305750x21002862. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/worlddev .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.