IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jrisks/v11y2023i11p189-d1270998.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

The Dynamic Endogeneity Issue between Corporate Ownership Structure and Real-Based Earnings Manipulation in an Emerging Market: Advanced Dynamic Panel Model

Author

Listed:
  • Eman Fathi Attia

    (Accounting Department, College of Business and Administration, University of Business and Technology, Jeddah 21448, Saudi Arabia
    Accounting and Finance Department, College of Business and Technology, Arab Academy for Science & Technology and Maritime, Cairo P.O. Box 1029, Egypt)

  • Messaoud Mehafdi

    (Accounting Department, Business School, Huddersfield University, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK)

Abstract

This study aims to contribute to the existing literature by examining the relationship between corporate governance (CG) attributes and real-based earnings management (REM) in the context of an emerging market economy. The study employs a sample of 78 Egyptian Exchange (EGX)-listed companies covering the period from 2008 to 2017, yielding a total of 780 observations. To address dynamic endogeneity concerns between CG mechanisms and REM, the dynamic panel system-generalized method of moments (SGMM) estimator is used as the main analytical tool. The findings reveal that managerial and family ownership are negatively and significantly correlated with REM proxies, except for the ABCFO measure. By contrast, government and institutional ownership exhibit contrasting results, depending on the REM proxies used. The CG-EM relationship is influenced by several conflicting theoretical perspectives, including agency theory, institutional theory, stewardship theory, and resource dependence theory, resulting in inconsistent empirical findings. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to detect Real-earnings manipulation practices (REM) in the Egyptian context using six models to confirm the validity, reliability, and robustness of the findings. Additionally, the study employs an advanced statistical technique that considers endogeneity, heteroscedasticity, and simultaneity in the relationship between CG mechanisms and earnings quality. The results highlight the importance of considering the institutional and legal context of a country when analyzing the impact of corporate governance mechanisms on earnings quality, as the practice and implementation of governance mechanisms vary across countries.

Suggested Citation

  • Eman Fathi Attia & Messaoud Mehafdi, 2023. "The Dynamic Endogeneity Issue between Corporate Ownership Structure and Real-Based Earnings Manipulation in an Emerging Market: Advanced Dynamic Panel Model," Risks, MDPI, vol. 11(11), pages 1-27, October.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jrisks:v:11:y:2023:i:11:p:189-:d:1270998
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9091/11/11/189/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9091/11/11/189/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Fei Guo & Shiguang Ma, 2015. "Ownership Characteristics and Earnings Management in China," Chinese Economy, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 48(5), pages 372-395, September.
    2. Ling Lin & Pavinee Manowan, 2012. "Institutional Ownership Composition and Earnings Management," Review of Pacific Basin Financial Markets and Policies (RPBFMP), World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., vol. 15(04), pages 1-22.
    3. Aysha S. Latif & Fahad Abdullah, 2015. "The Effectiveness of Corporate Governance in Constraining Earnings Management in Pakistan," Lahore Journal of Economics, Department of Economics, The Lahore School of Economics, vol. 20(1), pages 135-155, Jan-June.
    4. Khaled Samaha & Khaled Dahawy, 2011. "An empirical analysis of corporate governance structures and voluntary corporate disclosure in volatile capital markets: the Egyptian experience," International Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Performance Evaluation, Inderscience Enterprises Ltd, vol. 7(1/2), pages 61-93.
    5. Graham, John R. & Harvey, Campbell R. & Rajgopal, Shiva, 2005. "The economic implications of corporate financial reporting," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 40(1-3), pages 3-73, December.
    6. Shleifer, Andrei & Vishny, Robert W, 1997. "A Survey of Corporate Governance," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 52(2), pages 737-783, June.
    7. Kuo, Jing-Ming & Ning, Lutao & Song, Xiaoqi, 2014. "The Real and Accrual-based Earnings Management Behaviors: Evidence from the Split Share Structure Reform in China," The International Journal of Accounting, Elsevier, vol. 49(1), pages 101-136.
    8. Omran, Mohammed M. & Bolbol, Ali & Fatheldin, Ayten, 2008. "Corporate governance and firm performance in Arab equity markets: Does ownership concentration matter?," International Review of Law and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 28(1), pages 32-45, March.
    9. Eman F. Attia & Wafa Khémiri & Messaoud Mehafdi, 2023. "Does ownership structure reduce earnings manipulation practice of Egyptian listed firms? Evidence from a dynamic panel threshold model," Future Business Journal, Springer, vol. 9(1), pages 1-18, December.
    10. K.V. Peasnell & P.F. Pope & S. Young, 2005. "Board Monitoring and Earnings Management: Do Outside Directors Influence Abnormal Accruals?," Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 32(7‐8), pages 1311-1346, September.
    11. Jensen, Michael C. & Meckling, William H., 1976. "Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 3(4), pages 305-360, October.
    12. Trang Cam Hoang & Indra Abeysekera & Shiguang Ma, 2018. "Board Diversity and Corporate Social Disclosure: Evidence from Vietnam," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 151(3), pages 833-852, September.
    13. Hamid Sakaki & Dave Jackson & Surendranath Jory, 2017. "Institutional ownership stability and real earnings management," Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, Springer, vol. 49(1), pages 227-244, July.
    14. Blundell, Richard & Bond, Stephen, 1998. "Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 87(1), pages 115-143, August.
    15. Yuan Ding & Hua Zhang & Junxi Zhang, 2007. "Private vs State Ownership and Earnings Management: evidence from Chinese listed companies," Corporate Governance: An International Review, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 15(2), pages 223-238, March.
    16. David G. Sirmon & Michael A. Hitt, 2003. "Managing Resources: Linking Unique Resources, Management, and Wealth Creation in Family Firms," Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, , vol. 27(4), pages 339-358, October.
    17. Leuz, Christian & Nanda, Dhananjay & Wysocki, Peter D., 2003. "Earnings management and investor protection: an international comparison," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 69(3), pages 505-527, September.
    18. Katherine A. Gunny, 2010. "The Relation Between Earnings Management Using Real Activities Manipulation and Future Performance: Evidence from Meeting Earnings Benchmarks," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 27(3), pages 855-888, September.
    19. Cristhian Mellado & Paolo Saona, 2020. "Real earnings management and corporate governance: a study of Latin America," Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 33(1), pages 2229-2268, January.
    20. Fan, Joseph P. H. & Wong, T. J., 2002. "Corporate ownership structure and the informativeness of accounting earnings in East Asia," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 33(3), pages 401-425, August.
    21. Razzaque, Rushdi M.R. & Ali, Muhammad Jahangir & Mather, Paul, 2020. "Corporate governance reform and family firms: Evidence from an emerging economy," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 59(C).
    22. Razzaque, Rushdi Md. Rezaur & Ali, Muhammad Jahangir & Mather, Paul R., 2016. "Real earnings management in family firms: Evidence from an emerging economy," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 40(PB), pages 237-250.
    23. Rimon Emile & Aiman Ragab & Sandy Kyaw, 2014. "The Effect of Corporate Governance on Firm Performance, Evidence from Egypt," Asian Economic and Financial Review, Asian Economic and Social Society, vol. 4(12), pages 1865-1877.
    24. Pound, John, 1988. "Proxy contests and the efficiency of shareholder oversight," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 20(1-2), pages 237-265, January.
    25. Emma L. Schultz & David T. Tan & Kathleen D. Walsh, 2017. "Corporate governance and the probability of default," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 57, pages 235-253, April.
    26. Belén Villalonga & Raphael Amit, 2010. "Family Control of Firms and Industries," Financial Management, Financial Management Association International, vol. 39(3), pages 863-904, September.
    27. Juan Manuel San Martin Reyna, 2018. "The effect of ownership composition on earnings management: evidence for the Mexican stock exchange," Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Science, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 23(46), pages 289-305, October.
    28. Cohen, Daniel A. & Zarowin, Paul, 2010. "Accrual-based and real earnings management activities around seasoned equity offerings," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(1), pages 2-19, May.
    29. Habbershon, Timothy G. & Williams, Mary & MacMillan, Ian C., 2003. "A unified systems perspective of family firm performance," Journal of Business Venturing, Elsevier, vol. 18(4), pages 451-465, July.
    30. Wintoki, M. Babajide & Linck, James S. & Netter, Jeffry M., 2012. "Endogeneity and the dynamics of internal corporate governance," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 105(3), pages 581-606.
    31. Siregar, Sylvia Veronica & Utama, Sidharta, 2008. "Type of earnings management and the effect of ownership structure, firm size, and corporate-governance practices: Evidence from Indonesia," The International Journal of Accounting, Elsevier, vol. 43(1), pages 1-27, March.
    32. Eman F. Attia & Tariq H. Ismail & Messaoud Mehafdi, 2022. "Impact of board of directors attributes on real-based earnings management: further evidence from Egypt," Future Business Journal, Springer, vol. 8(1), pages 1-22, December.
    33. Fama, Eugene F & Jensen, Michael C, 1983. "Separation of Ownership and Control," Journal of Law and Economics, University of Chicago Press, vol. 26(2), pages 301-325, June.
    34. Liu, Qiao & Lu, Zhou (Joe), 2007. "Corporate governance and earnings management in the Chinese listed companies: A tunneling perspective," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 13(5), pages 881-906, December.
    35. Belal Ali Abdulraheem Ghaleb & Hasnah Kamardin & Mosab I. Tabash & Muhammad Shafiullah, 2020. "Family ownership concentration and real earnings management: Empirical evidence from an emerging market," Cogent Economics & Finance, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 8(1), pages 1751488-175, January.
    36. Nguyen, Tuan & Locke, Stuart & Reddy, Krishna, 2014. "A dynamic estimation of governance structures and financial performance for Singaporean companies," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 40(C), pages 1-11.
    37. Manh Dung Tran & Ngoc Hung Dang, 2021. "The Impact of Ownership Structure on Earnings Management: The Case of Vietnam," SAGE Open, , vol. 11(3), pages 21582440211, September.
    38. C.S. Agnes Cheng & Austin Reitenga, 2009. "Characteristics of institutional investors and discretionary accruals," International Journal of Accounting & Information Management, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 17(1), pages 5-26, June.
    39. Ann-Kristin Achleitner & Nina G�nther & Christoph Kaserer & Gianfranco Siciliano, 2014. "Real Earnings Management and Accrual-based Earnings Management in Family Firms," European Accounting Review, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 23(3), pages 431-461, September.
    40. Roychowdhury, Sugata, 2006. "Earnings management through real activities manipulation," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 42(3), pages 335-370, December.
    41. Sasan Mehrani & Mohammad Moradi & Hoda Eskandar, 2017. "Institutional Ownership Type and Earnings Quality: Evidence from Iran," Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 53(1), pages 54-73, January.
    42. Xu_Dong Ji & Kamran Ahmed & Wei Lu, 2015. "The impact of corporate governance and ownership structure reforms on earnings quality in China," International Journal of Accounting & Information Management, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 23(2), pages 169-198, May.
    43. Shaker Dahan AL-Duais & Mazrah Malek & Mohamad Ali Abdul Hamid & Amal Mohammed Almasawa, 2021. "Ownership structure and real earnings management: evidence from an emerging market," Journal of Accounting in Emerging Economies, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 12(2), pages 380-404, September.
    44. Iryna Akimova & Gerhard Schwödiauer, 2004. "Ownership structure, corporate governance, and enterprise performance: Empirical results for ukraine," International Advances in Economic Research, Springer;International Atlantic Economic Society, vol. 10(1), pages 28-42, February.
    45. Park, Yun W. & Shin, Hyun-Han, 2004. "Board composition and earnings management in Canada," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 10(3), pages 431-457, June.
    46. K.V. Peasnell & P.F. Pope & S. Young, 2005. "Board Monitoring and Earnings Management: Do Outside Directors Influence Abnormal Accruals?," Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 32(7-8), pages 1311-1346.
    47. Michael N. Young & Mike W. Peng & David Ahlstrom & Garry D. Bruton & Yi Jiang, 2008. "Corporate Governance in Emerging Economies: A Review of the Principal–Principal Perspective," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 45(1), pages 196-220, January.
    48. repec:bla:jfinan:v:58:y:2003:i:3:p:1301-1327 is not listed on IDEAS
    49. San Martin-Reyna, J.M. & Duran-Encalada, Jorge A., 2012. "The relationship among family business, corporate governance and firm performance: Evidence from the Mexican stock exchange," Journal of Family Business Strategy, Elsevier, vol. 3(2), pages 106-117.
    50. Rimon Emile & Aiman Ragab & Sandy Kyaw, 2014. "The Effect of Corporate Governance on Firm Performance, Evidence from Egypt," Asian Economic and Financial Review, Asian Economic and Social Society, vol. 4(12), pages 1865-1877, December.
    51. Claessens, Stijn & Djankov, Simeon & Lang, Larry H. P., 2000. "The separation of ownership and control in East Asian Corporations," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 58(1-2), pages 81-112.
    52. Dechun Wang, 2006. "Founding Family Ownership and Earnings Quality," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 44(3), pages 619-656, June.
    53. repec:lje:journl:v:20:y:2015:i:1:p:135-155 is not listed on IDEAS
    54. Wang, Qian & Wong, T.J. & Xia, Lijun, 2008. "State ownership, the institutional environment, and auditor choice: Evidence from China," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 46(1), pages 112-134, September.
    55. Lex Donaldson & James H. Davis, 1994. "Boards and Company Performance ‐ Research Challenges the Conventional Wisdom," Corporate Governance: An International Review, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 2(3), pages 151-160, July.
    56. Ebraheem Saleem Salem Alzoubi, 2016. "Audit quality and earnings management: evidence from Jordan," Journal of Applied Accounting Research, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 17(2), pages 170-189, May.
    57. Liu Wang & Kenneth Yung, 2011. "Do State Enterprises Manage Earnings More than Privately Owned Firms? The Case of China," Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 38(7-8), pages 794-812, September.
    58. Mohamed Khalil & Aydin Ozkan, 2016. "Board Independence, Audit Quality and Earnings Management: Evidence from Egypt," Journal of Emerging Market Finance, Institute for Financial Management and Research, vol. 15(1), pages 84-118, April.
    59. Abdullah Iqbal & Norman Strong, 2010. "The effect of corporate governance on earnings management around UK rights issues," International Journal of Managerial Finance, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 6(3), pages 168-189, June.
    60. Braam, Geert & Nandy, Monomita & Weitzel, Utz & Lodh, Suman, 2015. "Accrual-based and real earnings management and political connections," The International Journal of Accounting, Elsevier, vol. 50(2), pages 111-141.
    61. Hutchinson, Marion & Gul, Ferdinand A., 2004. "Investment opportunity set, corporate governance practices and firm performance," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 10(4), pages 595-614, September.
    62. Ronald C. Anderson & David M. Reeb, 2003. "Founding‐Family Ownership and Firm Performance: Evidence from the S&P 500," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 58(3), pages 1301-1328, June.
    63. Samaha, Khaled & Khlif, Hichem & Hussainey, Khaled, 2015. "The impact of board and audit committee characteristics on voluntary disclosure: A meta-analysis," Journal of International Accounting, Auditing and Taxation, Elsevier, vol. 24(C), pages 13-28.
    64. Muzammal Ilyas Sindhu & Shujahat Haider Hashmi & Ehtasham Ul Haq, 2016. "Impact of ownership structure on dividend payout in Pakistani non-financial sector," Cogent Business & Management, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 3(1), pages 1272815-127, December.
    65. Kałdoński, Michał & Jewartowski, Tomasz & Mizerka, Jacek, 2020. "Capital market pressure, real earnings management, and institutional ownership stability - Evidence from Poland," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 71(C).
    66. Audretsch, David B. & Lehmann, Erik E., 2014. "Corporate Governance and Entrepreneurial Firms," Foundations and Trends(R) in Entrepreneurship, now publishers, vol. 10(1-2), pages 1-160, May.
    67. Koh, Ping-Sheng, 2003. "On the association between institutional ownership and aggressive corporate earnings management in Australia," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 35(2), pages 105-128.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Nguyen Cong Thanh & Nguyen Hoang Hai & Nguyen Hoang Phu & Minh Ly Duc, 2024. "“Shall Absolute Power Corrupt Absolutely?†: A Perspective From Financial Constraints and Earnings Quality Under Government Control," SAGE Open, , vol. 14(3), pages 21582440241, July.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Eman F. Attia & Tariq H. Ismail & Messaoud Mehafdi, 2022. "Impact of board of directors attributes on real-based earnings management: further evidence from Egypt," Future Business Journal, Springer, vol. 8(1), pages 1-22, December.
    2. Nguyen, Quynh & Kim, Maria H. & Ali, Searat, 2024. "Corporate governance and earnings management: Evidence from Vietnamese listed firms," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 89(PA), pages 775-801.
    3. Attig, Najah & Chen, Ruiyuan & El Ghoul, Sadok & Guedhami, Omrane & Kwok, Chuck & Pittman, Jeffrey, 2020. "Are insiders equal? Evidence from earnings management in closely held East Asian firms," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 54(C).
    4. Chen, Ching-Lung & Weng, Pei-Yu & Fan, Hung-Shu, 2023. "Exploring the role of excess control rights on real earnings management in family-controlled firms," Journal of International Accounting, Auditing and Taxation, Elsevier, vol. 50(C).
    5. Elisabete F. Simões Vieira, 2016. "Earnings Management in Public Family Firms under Economic Adversity," Australian Accounting Review, CPA Australia, vol. 26(2), pages 190-207, June.
    6. Razzaque, Rushdi Md. Rezaur & Ali, Muhammad Jahangir & Mather, Paul R., 2016. "Real earnings management in family firms: Evidence from an emerging economy," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 40(PB), pages 237-250.
    7. Khosa,Amrinder & Ahmed,Kamran & Henry,Darren, 2019. "Ownership Structure, Related Party Transactions, and Firm Valuation," Cambridge Books, Cambridge University Press, number 9781108492195, November.
    8. Eman F. Attia & Wafa Khémiri & Messaoud Mehafdi, 2023. "Does ownership structure reduce earnings manipulation practice of Egyptian listed firms? Evidence from a dynamic panel threshold model," Future Business Journal, Springer, vol. 9(1), pages 1-18, December.
    9. Yves Mard & Sylvain Marsat, 2012. "Earnings management and ownership structure: Evidence from France [Gestion des résultats comptables et structure de l'actionnariat : le cas français]," Post-Print hal-02156592, HAL.
    10. Bao, Shuji Rosey & Lewellyn, Krista B., 2017. "Ownership structure and earnings management in emerging markets—An institutionalized agency perspective," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 26(5), pages 828-838.
    11. Yves Mard & Sylvain Marsat, 2011. "Gestion des résultats comptables et structure de l'actionnariat : le cas français," Post-Print hal-00650550, HAL.
    12. Ali Meftah Gerged & Khaldoon Albitar & Lara Al‐Haddad, 2023. "Corporate environmental disclosure and earnings management—The moderating role of corporate governance structures," International Journal of Finance & Economics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 28(3), pages 2789-2810, July.
    13. Razzaque, Rushdi M.R. & Ali, Muhammad Jahangir & Mather, Paul, 2020. "Corporate governance reform and family firms: Evidence from an emerging economy," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 59(C).
    14. Amin, Qazi Awais & Cumming, Douglas, 2021. "Blockholders and real earnings management-the emerging markets context," Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Elsevier, vol. 75(C).
    15. Ali, Muhammad Jahangir & Biswas, Pallab Kumar & Chapple, Larelle & Kumarasinghe, Sriyalatha, 2024. "Institutional ownership and earnings quality: Evidence from China," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 84(C).
    16. Ruqia Shaikh & Guo Fei & Muhammad Shaique & Muhammad Rizwan Nazir, 2019. "Control-Enhancing Mechanisms and Earnings Management: Empirical Evidence from Pakistan," JRFM, MDPI, vol. 12(3), pages 1-23, August.
    17. Eng, Li Li & Fang, Hanqing & Tian, Xi & Yu, T. Robert & Zhang, Hongxian, 2019. "Financial crisis and real earnings management in family firms: A comparison between China and the United States," Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Elsevier, vol. 59(C), pages 184-201.
    18. Ahsan Habib & Dinithi Ranasinghe & Julia Yonghua Wu & Pallab Kumar Biswas & Fawad Ahmad, 2022. "Real earnings management: A review of the international literature," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 62(4), pages 4279-4344, December.
    19. Mahmoud Alghemary & Nereida Polovina & Basil Al-Najjar, 2024. "Earnings management of acquiring and non-acquiring companies: the key role of ownership structure and national corporate governance in GCC," International Journal of Disclosure and Governance, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 21(4), pages 568-588, December.
    20. Sumon Kumar Bhaumik & Andros Gregoriou, 2010. "‘Family’ Ownership, Tunnelling And Earnings Management: A Review Of The Literature," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 24(4), pages 705-730, September.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jrisks:v:11:y:2023:i:11:p:189-:d:1270998. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.