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The wage penalty for motherhood: Evidence on discrimination from panel data and a survey experiment for Switzerland

Author

Listed:
  • Daniel Oesch

    (Université de Lausanne)

  • Oliver Lipps

    (Swiss Centre of Expertise in the Social Sciences (FORS))

  • Patrick McDonald

    (Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich)

Abstract

Background: Survey-based research finds a sizeable unexplained wage gap between mothers and nonmothers in affluent countries. The source of this wage gap is unclear: It can stem either from the unobserved effects of motherhood on productivity or from employer discrimination against mothers. Objective: This paper opens the black box of the motherhood wage gap by directly measuring discrimination in Switzerland based on two complementary methods. Methods: We first use two longitudinal population surveys to establish the size of the wage residual for motherhood. We then run a factorial survey experiment among HR managers (N=714) whom we asked to assign a starting wage to the résumés of fictitious job candidates. Results: The population surveys show an unexplained wage penalty per child of 4% to 8%. The factorial survey experiment shows that recruiters assign wages to mothers that are 2% to 3% below those of nonmothers. The wage penalty is larger for younger mothers, 6% for ages 40 and less, but disappears for older mothers or mothers in a blue-collar occupation. Conclusions: The motherhood wage gap found in panel studies cannot be reduced to unobserved dimensions of work productivity. The experimental evidence shows that recruiters discriminate against mothers. Contribution: Our paper’s novelty is to uncover wage discrimination against mothers by combining two different methods. Our national panel surveys mirror the supply side of the labor market and provide us with strong external validity. The factorial survey experiment on recruiters informs on the demand side of the labor market and shows a causal effect.

Suggested Citation

  • Daniel Oesch & Oliver Lipps & Patrick McDonald, 2017. "The wage penalty for motherhood: Evidence on discrimination from panel data and a survey experiment for Switzerland," Demographic Research, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany, vol. 37(56), pages 1793-1824.
    • Handle: RePEc:dem:demres:v:37:y:2017:i:56
    DOI: 10.4054/DemRes.2017.37.56
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    Cited by:

    1. Michaela Fuchs & Corinna Lawitzki & Anja Rossen & Antja Weyh, 2020. "Der bereinigte Gender Pay Gap: Warum Frauen in Sachsen eigentlich mehr verdienen müssten als Männer," ifo Dresden berichtet, ifo Institute - Leibniz Institute for Economic Research at the University of Munich, vol. 27(03), pages 15-21, June.
    2. Benjamin Artz, 2024. "Are Mothers More Likely Than Fathers to Lose Their jobs?," Journal of Family and Economic Issues, Springer, vol. 45(3), pages 528-545, September.
    3. Rossen, Anja & Fuchs, Michaela & Lawitzky, Corinna & Weyh, Antje, 2019. "Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede in Bayern," IAB-Regional. Berichte und Analysen aus dem Regionalen Forschungsnetz. IAB Bayern 201903, Institut für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung (IAB), Nürnberg [Institute for Employment Research, Nuremberg, Germany].
    4. Weyh, Antje & Lawitzky, Corinna & Rossen, Anja & Fuchs, Michaela, 2019. "Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede in Sachsen," IAB-Regional. Berichte und Analysen aus dem Regionalen Forschungsnetz. IAB Sachsen 201902, Institut für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung (IAB), Nürnberg [Institute for Employment Research, Nuremberg, Germany].
    5. Ben Jann & Barbara Zimmermann & Andreas Diekmann, 2020. "Lohngerechtigkeit und Geschlechternormen: Erhalten Männer eine Heiratsprämie?," University of Bern Social Sciences Working Papers 38, University of Bern, Department of Social Sciences.
    6. Tamara Gutfleisch & Robin Samuel & Stefan Sacchi, 2021. "The application of factorial surveys to study recruiters’ hiring intentions: comparing designs based on hypothetical and real vacancies," Quality & Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, Springer, vol. 55(3), pages 775-804, June.
    7. Mari, Gabriele & Luijkx, Ruud, 2020. "Gender, Parenthood, and Hiring Intentions in Sex-Typical Jobs: A Survey Experiment," SocArXiv kwdyp, Center for Open Science.
    8. Amélie Speiser, 2021. "Back to work: the effect of a long-term career interruption on subsequent wages in Switzerland," Swiss Journal of Economics and Statistics, Springer;Swiss Society of Economics and Statistics, vol. 157(1), pages 1-14, December.
    9. Combet, Benita & Oesch, Daniel, 2019. "The Gender Wage Gap Opens Long before Motherhood. Panel Evidence on Early Careers in Switzerland," SocArXiv sazxj, Center for Open Science.

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    More about this item

    Keywords

    motherhood; motherhood penalty; division of household work; panel data; employers; wage discrimination;
    All these keywords.

    JEL classification:

    • J1 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics
    • Z0 - Other Special Topics - - General

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