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The School-to-Prison Pipeline: Long-Run Impacts of School Suspensions on Adult Crime

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  • Andrew Bacher-Hicks
  • Stephen B. Billings
  • David J. Deming

Abstract

Schools must balance student behavior management with the potential negatives of strict discipline. These policies can deter misbehavior but may stigmatize students and expose them to the criminal justice system early. We assess the impact of attending a strict discipline school on achievement, educational attainment, and adult criminal activity. Using data from a boundary change and principal switches, we find that higher suspension rates have significant negative long-term effects. Students at such schools are 15–20 percent more likely to be arrested and incarcerated as adults. Negative impacts on educational attainment are particularly pronounced for males and students of color.

Suggested Citation

  • Andrew Bacher-Hicks & Stephen B. Billings & David J. Deming, 2024. "The School-to-Prison Pipeline: Long-Run Impacts of School Suspensions on Adult Crime," American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, American Economic Association, vol. 16(4), pages 165-193, November.
    • Handle: RePEc:aea:aejpol:v:16:y:2024:i:4:p:165-93
    DOI: 10.1257/pol.20230052
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    Cited by:

    1. Shi, Ying & Zhu, Maria, 2022. "Equal time for equal crime? Racial bias in school discipline," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 88(C).
    2. Liu, Jing & Hayes, Michael S. & Gershenson, Seth, 2024. "JUE Insight: From referrals to suspensions: New evidence on racial disparities in exclusionary discipline," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 141(C).
    3. Thurston Domina & Deven Carlson & James Carter & Matthew Lenard & Andrew McEachin & Rachel Perera, 2021. "The Kids on the Bus: The Academic Consequences of Diversity‐Driven School Reassignments," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 40(4), pages 1197-1229, September.
    4. Beatton, Tony & Kidd, Michael P. & Sandi, Matteo, 2020. "School indiscipline and crime," LSE Research Online Documents on Economics 108475, London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Library.
    5. Cattan, Sarah & Lereya, Suzet Tanya & Yoon, Yeosun & Gilbert, Ruth & Deighton, Jessica, 2023. "The impact of area level mental health interventions on outcomes for secondary school pupils: Evidence from the HeadStart programme in England," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 96(C).
    6. Nasreen Nawaz & Omer Saeed, 2022. "An Optimal Crime Control Policy in a Dynamic Setting," Journal of Quantitative Economics, Springer;The Indian Econometric Society (TIES), vol. 20(4), pages 827-880, December.
    7. Cowan, Benjamin & Jones, Todd R. & Swigert, Jeffrey, 2024. "Parental and Student Time Use Around the Academic Year," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 224(C), pages 66-110.
    8. Bennett, Fidel & Contreras, Dante & Morales Cerda, Matías, 2022. "The consequences of exclusionary discipline on school dropout: Evidence from Chile," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 95(C).
    9. Bubonya, Melisa & Cobb-Clark, Deborah A., 2021. "Pathways of Disadvantage: Unpacking the Intergenerational Correlation in Welfare," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 80(C).
    10. Chin, Mark J., 2024. "JUE Insight: Desegregated but still separated? The impact of school integration on student suspensions and special education classification," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 141(C).
    11. Liu, Jing & Hayes, Michael S. & Gershenson, Seth, 2021. "From Referrals to Suspensions: New Evidence on Racial Disparities in Exclusionary Discipline," IZA Discussion Papers 14619, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    12. Gershenson, Seth & Lindsay, Constance A. & Papageorge, Nicholas W. & Campbell, Romaine A. & Rendon, Jessica H., 2023. "Spillover Effects of Black Teachers on White Teachers' Racial Competency: Mixed Methods Evidence from North Carolina," IZA Discussion Papers 16258, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    13. Gilleskie, Donna B. & Li, Chunxiao, 2022. "The equity of exclusionary school discipline," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 90(C).
    14. Craig, Ashley C & Martin, David, 2023. "Discipline Reform, School Culture, and Student Achievement," IZA Discussion Papers 15906, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    15. Welsh, Richard O., 2023. "Up the down escalator? Examining a decade of school discipline reforms," Children and Youth Services Review, Elsevier, vol. 150(C).
    16. Benjamin Hansen & Joseph J. Sabia & Jessamyn Schaller, 2022. "In-Person Schooling and Youth Suicide: Evidence from School Calendars and Pandemic School Closures," NBER Working Papers 30795, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    17. Buell, Martha & Fidel, Rachel & Hustedt, Jason T. & Kuntz, Stephanie & Slicker, Gerilyn, 2022. "From time-out to expulsion: A national review of states’ center-based child care licensing exclusionary discipline regulations," Children and Youth Services Review, Elsevier, vol. 141(C).
    18. Noah Hirschl & Christian Michael Smith, 2020. "Well-Placed: The Geography of Opportunity and High School Effects on College Attendance," Research in Higher Education, Springer;Association for Institutional Research, vol. 61(5), pages 567-587, August.
    19. Acton, Riley & Khafaji-King, Jo Al & Smith, Austin C., 2023. "Suspended from Work and School? Impacts of Layoff Events and Unemployment Insurance on Student Disciplinary Incidence," IZA Discussion Papers 16423, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).

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    More about this item

    JEL classification:

    • H75 - Public Economics - - State and Local Government; Intergovernmental Relations - - - State and Local Government: Health, Education, and Welfare
    • I21 - Health, Education, and Welfare - - Education - - - Analysis of Education
    • I28 - Health, Education, and Welfare - - Education - - - Government Policy
    • J15 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants; Non-labor Discrimination
    • K42 - Law and Economics - - Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal Behavior - - - Illegal Behavior and the Enforcement of Law

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