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Short-Sale Restrictions and Market Reaction to Short-Interest Announcements
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- Comerton-Forde, Carole & Do, Binh Huu & Gray, Philip & Manton, Tom, 2016. "Assessing the information content of short-selling metrics using daily disclosures," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 64(C), pages 188-204.
- Benjamin Blau & Matthew Hill & Hao Wang, 2011. "REIT Short Sales and Return Predictability," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 42(4), pages 481-503, May.
- Hemang Desai & K. Ramesh & S. Ramu Thiagarajan & Bala V. Balachandran, 2002. "An Investigation of the Informational Role of Short Interest in the Nasdaq Market," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 57(5), pages 2263-2287, October.
- Michael Sullivan & Andrew Jianzhong Zhang, 2017. "The Accrual Anomaly and the Announcement Effect of Short Arbitrage," Quarterly Journal of Finance (QJF), World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., vol. 7(01), pages 1-26, March.
- Marie Dutordoir & Patrick Verwijmeren, 2008. "Why do Convertible Issuers simultaneously Repurchase Stock? An Arbitrage-based Explanation," Working Papers 0802, Departament Empresa, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, revised Feb 2008.
- Blau, Benjamin M. & Wade, Chip, 2012. "Informed or speculative: Short selling analyst recommendations," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 36(1), pages 14-25.
- Rapach, David E. & Ringgenberg, Matthew C. & Zhou, Guofu, 2016.
"Short interest and aggregate stock returns,"
Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 121(1), pages 46-65.
- David E. Rapach & Matthew C. Ringgenberg & Guofu Zhou, 2016. "Short interest and aggregate stock returns," CEMA Working Papers 716, China Economics and Management Academy, Central University of Finance and Economics.
- Benjamin Blau & Tyler J. Brough, 2012. "Concentrated short‐selling activity: bear raids or contrarian trading?," International Journal of Managerial Finance, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 8(3), pages 187-203, June.
- Deng, Xiaohu & Jiang, Christine & Young, Danqing, 2017. "Short Selling and Politically Motivated Negative Information Hoarding," Working Papers 2017-14, University of Tasmania, Tasmanian School of Business and Economics.
- William Arrata & Alejandro Bernales & Virginie Coudert, 2013. "The effects of Derivatives on Underlying Financial Markets: Equity Options, Commodity Futures and Credit Default Swaps," Post-Print hal-01410748, HAL.
- Blau, Benjamin M. & DeLisle, Jared R. & Price, S. McKay, 2015. "Do sophisticated investors interpret earnings conference call tone differently than investors at large? Evidence from short sales," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 31(C), pages 203-219.
- Duong, Huu Nhan & Kalev, Petko S. & Tian, Xiao, 2023. "Short selling, divergence of opinion and volatility in the corporate bond market," Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, Elsevier, vol. 147(C).
- Ross M. Batzer & Jonah Coste & William M. Doerner & Michael J. Seiler, 2024. "The Lock-In Effect of Rising Mortgage Rates," FHFA Staff Working Papers 24-03, Federal Housing Finance Agency.
- de Jong, Abe & Dutordoir, Marie & Verwijmeren, Patrick, 2011. "Why do convertible issuers simultaneously repurchase stock? An arbitrage-based explanation," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 100(1), pages 113-129, April.
- Massa, Massimo & von Beschwitz, Bastian, 2015. "Biased Shorts: Stock Market Implications of Short Sellers? Disposition Effect," CEPR Discussion Papers 10535, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
- von Beschwitz, Bastian & Massa, Massimo, 2020. "Biased short: Short sellers' disposition effect and limits to arbitrage," Journal of Financial Markets, Elsevier, vol. 49(C).
- Alexander, Gordon J. & Peterson, Mark A., 1999. "Short Selling on the New York Stock Exchange and the Effects of the Uptick Rule," Journal of Financial Intermediation, Elsevier, vol. 8(1-2), pages 90-116, January.
- Tse‐Chun Lin, 2012. "Dynamic short‐sale constraints, price limits, and price dynamics," International Journal of Managerial Finance, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 8(3), pages 256-279, June.
- George D. Cashman & David M. Harrison & Hainan Sheng, 2021. "Option Trading and REIT Returns," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 49(1), pages 332-389, March.
- Lin, Emily & Lee, Cheng-Few & Wang, Kehluh, 2013. "Futures mispricing, order imbalance, and short-selling constraints," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 25(C), pages 408-423.
- Hvidkjær, Søren & Massa, Massimo & Rzeźnik, Aleksandra, 2023. "Co-illiquidity management," Journal of Empirical Finance, Elsevier, vol. 74(C).
- Niels C. Thygesen & Robert N. McCauley & Guonan Ma & William R. White & Jakob de Haan & Willem van den End & Jon Frost & Christiaan Pattipeilohy & Mostafa Tabbae & Ernest Gnan & Morten Balling & Paul , 2013. "50 Years of Money and Finance: Lessons and Challenges," SUERF 50th Anniversary Volume - 50 Years of Money and Finance: Lessons and Challenges, SUERF - The European Money and Finance Forum, number 1 edited by Morten Balling & Ernest Gnan, March.
- Hendershott, Terrence & Livdan, Dmitry & Schürhoff, Norman, 2015.
"Are institutions informed about news?,"
Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 117(2), pages 249-287.
- Terrence HENDERSHOTT & Dmitry LIVDAN & Norman SCHUERHOFF, 2014. "Are Institutions Informed About News?," Swiss Finance Institute Research Paper Series 14-49, Swiss Finance Institute.
- Benjamin Blau & Tyler Brough, 2015. "Are put-call ratios a substitute for short sales?," Review of Derivatives Research, Springer, vol. 18(1), pages 51-73, April.
- Bardong, Florian & Bartram, Söhnke M. & Yadav, Pradeep K., 2007. "Are Short-sellers Different?," MPRA Paper 13585, University Library of Munich, Germany, revised 16 Nov 2008.
- Blau, Benjamin M. & Fuller, Kathleen P. & Van Ness, Robert A., 2011. "Short selling around dividend announcements and ex-dividend days," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 17(3), pages 628-639, June.
- Bohl, Martin T. & Klein, Arne C. & Siklos, Pierre L., 2013. "Are short sellers positive feedback traders? Evidence from the global financial crisis," Journal of Financial Stability, Elsevier, vol. 9(3), pages 337-346.
- Benjamin Blau & Kathleen Fuller & Chip Wade, 2015. "Short Selling and Price Pressure Around Merger Announcements," Journal of Financial Services Research, Springer;Western Finance Association, vol. 48(2), pages 143-160, October.
- A. Bernales, 2014. "The Effects of Information Asymmetries on the Ex-Post Success of Stock Option Listings," Working papers 495, Banque de France.
- Jank, Stephan & Roling, Christoph & Smajlbegovic, Esad, 2021.
"Flying under the radar: The effects of short-sale disclosure rules on investor behavior and stock prices,"
Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 139(1), pages 209-233.
- Jank, Stephan & Roling, Christoph & Smajlbegovic, Esad, 2016. "Flying under the radar: The effects of short-sale disclosure rules on investor behavior and stock prices," Discussion Papers 25/2016, Deutsche Bundesbank.
- Geczy, Christopher C. & Musto, David K. & Reed, Adam V., 2002. "Stocks are special too: an analysis of the equity lending market," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 66(2-3), pages 241-269.
- Khan, Mostafa Saidur Rahim & Bremer, Marc & Kato, Hideaki Kiyoshi, 2018. "Are short-sales constraints binding when there is a centralized lendable securities market? Evidence from Japan," Journal of the Japanese and International Economies, Elsevier, vol. 48(C), pages 85-96.
- Kaveh Moradi Dezfouli & Lawrence Kryzanowski, 2016. "Derivatives, Short Selling and US Equity and Bond Mutual Funds," Quarterly Journal of Finance (QJF), World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., vol. 6(01), pages 1-44, March.
- Blau, Benjamin M. & Tew, Philip L., 2014. "Short sales and class-action lawsuits," Journal of Financial Markets, Elsevier, vol. 20(C), pages 79-100.
- Lin, Chih-Yung & Bui, Dien Giau & Lin, Tse-Chun, 2020. "Do short sellers exploit risky business models of banks? Evidence from two banking crises," Journal of Financial Stability, Elsevier, vol. 46(C).
- Fos, Vyacheslav & Appel, Ian & Bulka, Jordan, 2019. "Active Short Selling by Hedge Funds," CEPR Discussion Papers 13788, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
- Albert, Robert Jr. & Smaby, Timothy R. & David Robison, H., 1997. "Short selling and trading abuses on Nasdaq," Financial Services Review, Elsevier, vol. 6(1), pages 27-39.
- J. Graham & J. Hughen, 2007. "Ownership structure, expectations, and short sales on the Nasdaq," Journal of Economics and Finance, Springer;Academy of Economics and Finance, vol. 31(1), pages 33-48, March.
- Knill, April & Liu, Baixiao & McConnell, John J. & McKenzie, Glades, 2024. "The influence of media slant on short sellers," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 84(C).
- Chen, Crystal Xiaobei & Rhee, S. Ghon, 2010. "Short sales and speed of price adjustment: Evidence from the Hong Kong stock market," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 34(2), pages 471-483, February.
- Jank, Stephan & Smajlbegovic, Esad, 2015. "Dissecting short-sale performance: Evidence from large position disclosures," CFR Working Papers 15-15, University of Cologne, Centre for Financial Research (CFR).
- Ho, Kim Wai, 1996. "Short-sales restrictions and volatility The case of the Stock Exchange of Singapore," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 4(4), pages 377-391, December.
- Azhar Mohamad, 2017. "Seeking Negative Alphas Through Shorting," Global Business Review, International Management Institute, vol. 18(6), pages 1488-1506, December.
- Michael McKenzie & Olan T. Henry, 2007. "The Determinnts of Short Selling in the Hong Kong Equities Market," Department of Economics - Working Papers Series 1001, The University of Melbourne.
- G—mez Mart’nez, Raœl & Paule Vianes, Jessica & Martínez Naval—n, Juan Gabriel, 2018. "Eficacia de las prohibiciones de las ventas en corto en Espa–a || Effectiveness of Short Sales Bans in Spain," Revista de Métodos Cuantitativos para la Economía y la Empresa = Journal of Quantitative Methods for Economics and Business Administration, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Department of Quantitative Methods for Economics and Business Administration, vol. 26(1), pages 250-268, Diciembre.
- Benjamin M. Blau & Robert A. Van Ness & Chip Wade, 2008. "Capitalizing on Catastrophe: Short Selling Insurance Stocks Around Hurricanes Katrina and Rita," Journal of Risk & Insurance, The American Risk and Insurance Association, vol. 75(4), pages 967-996, December.
- Crystal Xiaobei Chen, 2012. "The anatomy of short sales and price adjustment: evidence from the Hong Kong stock market," International Journal of Managerial Finance, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 8(3), pages 204-218, June.
- Blau, Benjamin M. & Smith, Jason M., 2014. "Autocorrelation in daily short-sale volume," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 54(1), pages 31-41.
- Sanjay Deshmukh & Keith Jacks Gamble & Keith M. Howe, 2015. "Short Selling and Firm Operating Performance," Financial Management, Financial Management Association International, vol. 44(1), pages 217-236, March.
- Blau, Benjamin M. & Van Ness, Robert A. & Warr, Richard S., 2012. "Short selling of ADRs and foreign market short-sale constraints," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 36(3), pages 886-897.
- Ólan T. Henry & Michael McKenzie, 2006.
"The Impact of Short Selling on the Price-Volume Relationship: Evidence from Hong Kong,"
The Journal of Business, University of Chicago Press, vol. 79(2), pages 671-692, March.
- Olan T. Henry & Michael McKenzie, 2003. "The Impact of Short Selling on the Price–Volume Relationship: Evidence from Hong Kong," Department of Economics - Working Papers Series 869, The University of Melbourne.
- Olan T. Henry & Michael McKenzie, 2004. "The Impact of Short Selling on the Price-Volume Relationship: Evidence from Hong Kong," Working Papers 032004, Hong Kong Institute for Monetary Research.
- Detre, Joshua D. & Gunderson, Michael A., 2011. "The Triple Bottom Line: What is the Impact on the Returns to Agribusiness?," International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, International Food and Agribusiness Management Association, vol. 14(4), pages 1-14, November.
- Alldredge, Dallin M. & Blau, Benjamin M. & Brough, Tyler J., 2012. "Short selling after hours," Journal of Economics and Business, Elsevier, vol. 64(6), pages 439-451.
- Asquith, Paul & Pathak, Parag A. & Ritter, Jay R., 2005. "Short interest, institutional ownership, and stock returns," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 78(2), pages 243-276, November.
- Hanauer, Matthias X. & Lesnevski, Pavel & Smajlbegovic, Esad, 2023. "Surprise in short interest," Journal of Financial Markets, Elsevier, vol. 65(C).
- Blau, Benjamin M. & Cox, Justin S. & Griffith, Todd G. & Voges, Ryan, 2023. "Daily short selling around reverse stock splits," Journal of Financial Markets, Elsevier, vol. 65(C).
- Mohamad, Azhar & Jaafar, Aziz & Hodgkinson, Lynn & Wells, Jo, 2013. "Short selling and stock returns: Evidence from the UK," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 45(2), pages 125-137.
- Boehmer, Ekkehart & Huszar, Zsuzsa R. & Jordan, Bradford D., 2010. "The good news in short interest," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 96(1), pages 80-97, April.
- Archana Jain & Chinmay Jain & Christine X. Jiang, 2019. "Early Movers Advantage? Evidence from Short Selling during After‐Hours on Earnings Announcement Days," The Financial Review, Eastern Finance Association, vol. 54(2), pages 235-264, May.
- Benjamin Blau & Chip Wade, 2013. "Comparing the information in short sales and put options," Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, Springer, vol. 41(3), pages 567-583, October.
- Hu, Ou & Huang, Zhaodan & Liao, Bih-shuang, 2009. "Short sale and stock returns: Evidence from the Taiwan Stock Exchange," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 49(3), pages 1146-1158, August.
- Alejandro Bernales & Massimo Guidolin, 2013. "The Effects of Information Asymmetries on the Success of Stock Option Listings," Working Papers 484, IGIER (Innocenzo Gasparini Institute for Economic Research), Bocconi University.
- Deng, Xiaohu & Gao, Lei, 2018. "The monitoring of short selling: Evidence from China," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 43(C), pages 68-78.
- Dungey, Mardi & McKenzie, Michael D. & Yalama, Abdullah, 2013. "The cross market effects of short sale restrictions," The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 26(C), pages 53-71.
- Li, Xindan & Geng, Ziyang & Subrahmanyam, Avanidhar & Yu, Honghai, 2017. "Do wealthy investors have an informational advantage? Evidence based on account classifications of individual investors," Journal of Empirical Finance, Elsevier, vol. 44(C), pages 1-18.
- He, Jingbin & Ma, Xinru & Wei, Qu, 2022. "Firm-level short selling and the local COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from China," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 113(C).
- Stephen L. Lenkey, 2021. "Informed Trading with a Short-Sale Prohibition," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 67(3), pages 1803-1824, March.
- Azhar Mohamad & Aziz Jaafar & John Goddard, 2016. "Short selling and exchange-traded funds returns: evidence from the London Stock Exchange," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 48(2), pages 152-164, January.
- Lecce, Steven & Lepone, Andrew & McKenzie, Michael D. & Segara, Reuben, 2012. "The impact of naked short selling on the securities lending and equity market," Journal of Financial Markets, Elsevier, vol. 15(1), pages 81-107.
- Deng, Xiaohu & Gao, Lei & Kim, Jeong-Bon, 2020. "Short-sale constraints and stock price crash risk: Causal evidence from a natural experiment," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 60(C).
- Asjeet Lamba & Mohamed Ariff, 2006. "Short selling restrictions and market completeness: the Malaysian experience," Applied Financial Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 16(5), pages 385-393.
- Jiao, Yawen & Massa, Massimo & Zhang, Hong, 2016. "Short selling meets hedge fund 13F: An anatomy of informed demand," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 122(3), pages 544-567.
- Greppmair, Stefan & Jank, Stephan & Smajlbegovic, Esad, 2023.
"On the importance of fiscal space: Evidence from short sellers during the COVID-19 pandemic,"
Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 147(C).
- Greppmair, Stefan & Jank, Stephan & Smajlbegovic, Esad, 2021. "On the importance of fiscal space: Evidence from short sellers during the COVID-19 pandemic," Discussion Papers 29/2021, Deutsche Bundesbank.
- Charles M. Jones & Adam V. Reed & William Waller, 2016. "Revealing Shorts An Examination of Large Short Position Disclosures," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 29(12), pages 3278-3320.
- Jarrod Johnston & Jeff Madura & Joel Harper, 2005. "Interaction Between Short Selling and Potential Insider Selling in the IPO Aftermarket," Journal of Financial Services Research, Springer;Western Finance Association, vol. 27(3), pages 283-302, September.
- Blau, Benjamin M. & Van Ness, Bonnie F. & Van Ness, Robert A., 2011.
"Information in short selling: Comparing Nasdaq and the NYSE,"
Review of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 20(1), pages 1-10, January.
- Benjamin M. Blau & Bonnie F. Van Ness & Robert A. Van Ness, 2011. "Information in short selling: Comparing Nasdaq and the NYSE," Review of Financial Economics, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 20(1), pages 1-10, January.
- Ma, Chenghu & Hu, Jianqiang & Xu, Yifan, 2018. "Margins on short sales and equilibrium price indeterminacy," Journal of Mathematical Economics, Elsevier, vol. 74(C), pages 79-92.
- Bernales, Alejandro, 2017. "The success of option listings," Journal of Empirical Finance, Elsevier, vol. 40(C), pages 139-161.
- Di Maggio, Marco & Franzoni, Francesco & Massa, Massimo & Tubaldi, Roberto, 2024. "Strategic trading as a response to short sellers," Journal of Financial Markets, Elsevier, vol. 69(C).
- Kelley Bergsma & Jitendra Tayal, 2019. "Short Interest and Lottery Stocks," Financial Management, Financial Management Association International, vol. 48(1), pages 187-227, March.
- Bessembinder, Hendrik & Chan, Kalok & Seguin, Paul J., 1996. "An empirical examination of information, differences of opinion, and trading activity," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 40(1), pages 105-134, January.
- Massa, Massimo & Qian, Wenlan & Xu, Weibiao & Zhang, Hong, 2015. "Competition of the informed: Does the presence of short sellers affect insider selling?," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 118(2), pages 268-288.
- Feng, Xunan & Chan, Kam C., 2016. "Information advantage, short sales, and stock returns: Evidence from short selling reform in China," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 59(C), pages 131-142.
- Benjamin Blau, 2013. "Informed short sales and option introductions," Annals of Finance, Springer, vol. 9(3), pages 365-382, August.
- Brigida, Matthew & Madura, Jeff, 2012. "Sources of target stock price run-up prior to acquisitions," Journal of Economics and Business, Elsevier, vol. 64(2), pages 185-198.
- Zhaobo Zhu & Xinrui Duan & Jun Tu, 2019. "The Trend in Short Selling and the Cross Section of Stock Returns," Annals of Economics and Finance, Society for AEF, vol. 20(2), pages 565-586, November.
- Chip Wade & Andre Liebenberg & Benjamin M. Blau, 2016. "Information and Insurer Financial Strength Ratings: Do Short Sellers Anticipate Ratings Changes?," Journal of Risk & Insurance, The American Risk and Insurance Association, vol. 83(2), pages 475-500, June.
- Tyler R. Henry, 2019. "Security price formation and informed trading with constrained short selling," Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, Springer, vol. 53(1), pages 123-151, July.
- Massa, Massimo & Jiao, Yawen, 2015. "Short Selling Meets Hedge Fund 13F: An Anatomy of Informed Demand," CEPR Discussion Papers 10471, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
- Dong, Yunhe & Luo, Haoyi & Xu, Zijin & Yang, Xing, 2024. "Investing while lending: Do index funds improve managerial information disclosure?," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 94(C).
- Frino, Alex & Lecce, Steven & Lepone, Andrew, 2011. "Short-sales constraints and market quality: Evidence from the 2008 short-sales bans," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 20(4), pages 225-236, August.
- Paul D. McNelis & Carrie K.C. Chan, 2004. "Deflationary Dynamics in Hong Kong: Evidence from Linear and Neural Network Regime Switching Models," Working Papers 212004, Hong Kong Institute for Monetary Research.
- Kahraman, Bige & Pachare, Salil, 2018. "Show us your shorts!," CEPR Discussion Papers 12658, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
- Paul A. Griffin & Hyun A. Hong & Jeong-Bon Kim, 2016. "Price discovery in the CDS market: the informational role of equity short interest," Review of Accounting Studies, Springer, vol. 21(4), pages 1116-1148, December.
- Engelberg, Joseph E. & Reed, Adam V. & Ringgenberg, Matthew C., 2012. "How are shorts informed?," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 105(2), pages 260-278.
- Chung, Chune Young & DeVault, Luke & Wang, Kainan, 2019. "Perceived information, short interest, and institutional demand," Journal of Empirical Finance, Elsevier, vol. 54(C), pages 22-38.
- Blau, Benjamin M. & Van Ness, Bonnie F. & Van Ness, Robert A., 2009. "Information and trade sizes: The case of short sales," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 49(4), pages 1371-1388, November.
- Blau, Benjamin M. & Brough, Tyler J., 2012. "Short sales, stealth trading, and the suspension of the uptick rule," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 52(1), pages 38-48.
- Daniel Dupuis & Lawrence Kryzanowski, "undated". "Governance and Short Sales," Finance Working Papers 03-04/2015, School of Business Administration, American University of Sharjah.
- Duffie, Darrell & Garleanu, Nicolae & Pedersen, Lasse Heje, 2002. "Securities lending, shorting, and pricing," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 66(2-3), pages 307-339.
- Benjamin M. Blau & Bonnie F. Van Ness & Robert A. Van Ness, 2009. "Short Selling and the Weekend Effect for NYSE Securities," Financial Management, Financial Management Association International, vol. 38(3), pages 603-630, September.
- Massimo Massa & Bastian von Beschwitz, 2015. "Biased Shorts: Short sellers’ Disposition Effect and Limits to Arbitrage," International Finance Discussion Papers 1147, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (U.S.).