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The Geography of Child Penalties and Gender Norms: Evidence from the United States

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  • Henrik Kleven

    (Princeton University)

Abstract

This paper develops a new approach to estimating child penalties based on cross-sectional data and pseudo-event studies around child birth. The approach is applied to US data and validated against the state-of-the-art panel data approach. Child penalties can be accurately estimated using cross-sectional data, which are widely available and give more statistical power than typical panel datasets. Five main empirical findings are presented. First, US child penalties have declined significantly over the last five decades, but almost all of this decline occurred during the earlier part of the period. Child penalties have been virtually constant since the 1990s, explaining the slowdown of gender convergence during this period. Second, child penalties vary enormously over space. The employment penalty ranges from 12% in the Dakotas to 38% in Utah, while the earnings penalty ranges from 21% in Vermont to 61% in Utah. Third, child penalties correlate strongly with measures of gender norms. The evolution of child penalties mirrors the evolution of gender progressivity over time, with a greater fall in child penalties in states where gender progressivity has increased more. Fourth, an epidemiological study of gender norms using US-born movers and foreign-born immigrants is presented. The child penalty for US movers is strongly related to the child penalty in their state of birth, adjusting for selection in their state of residence. Parents born in high-penalty states (such as Utah or Idaho) have much larger child penalties than those born in low-penalty states (such as the Dakotas or Rhode Island), conditional on where they live. Similarly, the child penalty for foreign immigrants is strongly related to the child penalty in their country of birth. Immigrants born in high-penalty countries (such as Mexico or Iran) have much larger child penalties than immigrants born in low-penalty countries (such as China or Sweden). Evidence is presented to show that these effects are not driven by selection. Finally, immigrants assimilate to US culture over time: A comparison of child penalties among first-generation and later-generation immigrants shows that differences by country of origin eventually disappear.

Suggested Citation

  • Henrik Kleven, 2022. "The Geography of Child Penalties and Gender Norms: Evidence from the United States," Working Papers 2022-20, Princeton University. Economics Department..
  • Handle: RePEc:pri:econom:2022-20
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    File URL: https://www.henrikkleven.com/uploads/3/7/3/1/37310663/childpenalties-culture_kleven_july2022.pdf
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Altonji, Joseph G. & Blank, Rebecca M., 1999. "Race and gender in the labor market," Handbook of Labor Economics, in: O. Ashenfelter & D. Card (ed.), Handbook of Labor Economics, edition 1, volume 3, chapter 48, pages 3143-3259, Elsevier.
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    Cited by:

    1. Meng, Lingsheng & Zhang, Yunbin & Zou, Ben, 2023. "The motherhood penalty in China: Magnitudes, trends, and the role of grandparenting," Journal of Comparative Economics, Elsevier, vol. 51(1), pages 105-132.
    2. Ylenia Brilli & Simone Moriconi, 2023. "Culture of Origin, Parenting, and Household Labor Supply," Working Papers 2023: 17, Department of Economics, University of Venice "Ca' Foscari".
    3. Mariana Marchionni & Julián Pedrazzi, 2023. "The Last Hurdle? Unyielding Motherhood Effects in the Context of Declining Gender Inequality in Latin America," CEDLAS, Working Papers 0321, CEDLAS, Universidad Nacional de La Plata.
    4. Albanesi, Stefania & Olivetti, Claudia & Petrongolo, Barbara, 2022. "Families, labor markets and policy," LSE Research Online Documents on Economics 118038, London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Library.
    5. Bensnes, Simon & Huitfeldt, Ingrid & Leuven, Edwin, 2023. "Reconciling Estimates of the Long-Term Earnings Effect of Fertility," IZA Discussion Papers 16174, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    6. Ana Costa-Ramón & Ursina Schaede & Michaela Slotwinski & Anne Ardila Brenoe, 2024. "(Not) Thinking about the Future: Inattention and Maternal Labor Supply," CESifo Working Paper Series 11359, CESifo.
    7. Koopmans, Pim & van Lent, Max & Been, Jim, 2024. "Child Penalties and the Gender Gap in Home Production and the Labor Market," IZA Discussion Papers 16871, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    8. Berniell, Inés & Fernández, Raquel & Krutikova, Sonya, 2023. "Gender inequality in Latin America and the Caribbean," LSE Research Online Documents on Economics 121024, London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Library.
    9. Zhang, Mingxue & Wang, Yue & Hou, Lingling, 2024. "Gender norms and the child penalty in China," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 221(C), pages 277-291.
    10. Bütikofer, Aline & Karadakic, René & Willén, Alexander, 2023. "Parenthood and the Gender Gap in Commuting," Discussion Paper Series in Economics 11/2023, Norwegian School of Economics, Department of Economics.
    11. Cai, Jun & Zhao, Kui, 2024. "Uniform agricultural tax abolition and differential household labor supply: Evidence from China's urban household survey," China Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 86(C).
    12. Inés Berniell & Raquel Fernández & Sonya Krutikova, 2024. "Gender Inequality in Latin America," CEDLAS, Working Papers 0338, CEDLAS, Universidad Nacional de La Plata.

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    More about this item

    Keywords

    Child Penalties; Panel Data Approach; Children; Immigrants; United States;
    All these keywords.

    JEL classification:

    • C23 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Single Equation Models; Single Variables - - - Models with Panel Data; Spatio-temporal Models
    • J13 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Fertility; Family Planning; Child Care; Children; Youth

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