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Title IX and the Evolution of High School Sports

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  • Betsey Stevenson

Abstract

The passage of Title IX, the 1972 Education Amendments to the Civil Rights Act, expanded high school athletic opportunities to include girls, revolutionizing mass sports participation in the United States. This paper analyzes high school athletic participation in the United States and how sports offerings for boys and girls changed subsequent to the passage of this legislation. Girls’ sports participation rose dramatically both following the enactment of Title IX and subsequent to enhancements to its enforcement. Approximately half of all girls currently participate in sports during high school; however, there remains a substantial gap between girls and boys participation in many states. States’ average education level and social attitudes regarding Title IX and women’s rights are correlated with this remaining gender gap. Examining individual high school students, sports participation is seen more frequently among those with a privileged background: white students with married, wealthy, educated parents are more likely to play sports. This finding points to an overlooked fact—while Title IX benefited girls by increasing the opportunity to play sports, these benefits were disproportionately reaped by those at the top of the income distribution.

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  • Betsey Stevenson, 2007. "Title IX and the Evolution of High School Sports," CESifo Working Paper Series 2159, CESifo.
    • Handle: RePEc:ces:ceswps:_2159
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Lipscomb, Stephen, 2007. "Secondary school extracurricular involvement and academic achievement: a fixed effects approach," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 26(4), pages 463-472, August.
    2. Betsey Stevenson, 2010. "Beyond the Classroom: Using Title IX to Measure the Return to High School Sports," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 92(2), pages 284-301, May.
    3. Deborah J. Anderson & John J. Cheslock & Ronald G. Ehrenberg, 2006. "Gender Equity in Intercollegiate Athletics: Determinants of Title IX Compliance," The Journal of Higher Education, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 77(2), pages 225-250, March.
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    7. Sarah L. Stafford, 2004. "Progress Toward Title IX Compliance: The Effect of Formal and Informal Enforcement Mechanisms," Social Science Quarterly, Southwestern Social Science Association, vol. 85(5), pages 1469-1486, December.
    8. Long, James E & Caudill, Steven B, 1991. "The Impact of Participation in Intercollegiate Athletics on Income and Graduation," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 73(3), pages 525-531, August.
    9. Lawrence M. Kahn, 2007. "Markets: Cartel Behavior and Amateurism in College Sports," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 21(1), pages 209-226, Winter.
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    Cited by:

    1. Joseph Price & Daniel H. Simon, 2011. "High School Sports and Teenage Births," Chapters, in: Plácido Rodríguez & Stefan Késenne & Brad R. Humphreys (ed.), The Economics of Sport, Health and Happiness, chapter 10, Edward Elgar Publishing.
    2. Betsey Stevenson, 2010. "Beyond the Classroom: Using Title IX to Measure the Return to High School Sports," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 92(2), pages 284-301, May.
    3. Sevilla, Almudena, 2020. "Gender Economics: An Assessment," IZA Discussion Papers 13877, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    4. Katherine H. Rizzone & Bianca Edison & Nailah Coleman & Cordelia Carter & Ingrid Ichesco & Paige Cassidy & Jane Chung & Courtney Marie Cora Jones, 2021. "Sports Bra Preferences by Age and Impact of Breast Size on Physical Activity among American Females," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(23), pages 1-9, December.
    5. Barbara Kotschwar & Tyler Moran, 2015. "Pitching a Level Playing Field: Women and Leadership in Sports," Policy Briefs PB15-22, Peterson Institute for International Economics.
    6. Steingrimsdottir, Herdis, 2020. "The decreased popularity of the teaching sector in the 1970s," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 74(C).
    7. Craig Garthwaite & Jordan Keener & Matthew J. Notowidigdo & Nicole F. Ozminkowski, 2020. "Who Profits From Amateurism? Rent-Sharing in Modern College Sports," NBER Working Papers 27734, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    8. Baker, Michael & Cornelson, Kirsten, 2019. "Title IX and the spatial content of female employment—Out of the lab and into the labor market," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 58(C), pages 128-144.
    9. Marcén, Miriam & Morales, Marina & Sevilla, Almudena, 2020. "Gender Stereotyping in Sports," IZA Discussion Papers 13470, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    10. Callison, Kevin & Lowen, Aaron, 2022. "The long-run effects of adolescent athletic participation on women’s health," Economics & Human Biology, Elsevier, vol. 44(C).
    11. Barbara Kotschwar, 2014. "Women, Sports, and Development: Does It Pay to Let Girls Play?," Policy Briefs PB14-8, Peterson Institute for International Economics.
    12. Brad R. Humphreys & Jane Ruseski, 2014. "Adolescent Steroid Use and Intercollegiate Athletic Incentives," Working Papers 14-25, Department of Economics, West Virginia University.
    13. Aaron Lowen & Robert O. Deaner & Erika Schmitt, 2016. "Guys and Gals Going for Gold," Journal of Sports Economics, , vol. 17(3), pages 260-285, April.
    14. Vidal-Fernández Marian, 2011. "The Effect of Minimum Academic Requirements to Participate in Sports on High School Graduation," The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, De Gruyter, vol. 11(1), pages 1-21, August.
    15. Guldi, Melanie, 2016. "Title IX and the education of teen mothers," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 55(C), pages 103-116.
    16. Greenfield, Emily A. & Reynolds, Addam & Moorman, Sara M., 2022. "Life course linkages between enriching early-life activities and later life cognition: Evidence from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 294(C).

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    More about this item

    JEL classification:

    • I20 - Health, Education, and Welfare - - Education - - - General
    • J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
    • J18 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Public Policy
    • J24 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demand and Supply of Labor - - - Human Capital; Skills; Occupational Choice; Labor Productivity

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