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Economic outcomes for transgender people and other gender minorities in the United States: First estimates from a nationally representative sample

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  • Christopher S. Carpenter
  • Maxine J. Lee
  • Laura Nettuno

Abstract

We provide the literature's first estimates of economic outcomes for transgender people and other gender minorities in the United States using nationally representative data from the U.S. Census Bureau's Household Pulse Survey which identifies over 9,400 individuals from 2021 to 2022 who are non‐cisgender (i.e., whose current gender does not align with their sex assigned at birth). We find that non‐cisgender individuals are significantly less likely to be employed, have higher poverty rates, are more likely to have public health insurance, and report greater food insecurity compared to otherwise similar cisgender individuals. We also find that non‐cisgender Black individuals fare significantly worse than non‐cisgender white individuals. Our results demonstrate the precarious economic position of gender minority populations in America.

Suggested Citation

  • Christopher S. Carpenter & Maxine J. Lee & Laura Nettuno, 2022. "Economic outcomes for transgender people and other gender minorities in the United States: First estimates from a nationally representative sample," Southern Economic Journal, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 89(2), pages 280-304, October.
    • Handle: RePEc:wly:soecon:v:89:y:2022:i:2:p:280-304
    DOI: 10.1002/soej.12594
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Conron, K.J. & Scott, G. & Stowell, G.S. & Landers, S.J., 2012. "Transgender health in massachusetts: Results from a household probability sample of adults," American Journal of Public Health, American Public Health Association, vol. 102(1), pages 118-122.
    2. Benjamin Cerf Harris, 2015. "Likely Transgender Individuals in U.S. Federal Administrative Records and the 2010 Census," CARRA Working Papers 2015-03, Center for Economic Studies, U.S. Census Bureau.
    3. Christopher S. Carpenter & Samuel T. Eppink & Gilbert Gonzales, 2020. "Transgender Status, Gender Identity, and Socioeconomic Outcomes in the United States," ILR Review, Cornell University, ILR School, vol. 73(3), pages 573-599, May.
    4. Geijtenbeek, Lydia & Plug, Erik, 2018. "Is there a penalty for registered women? Is there a premium for registered men? Evidence from a sample of transsexual workers," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 109(C), pages 334-347.
    5. Mann, Samuel, 2021. "Transgender employment and gender marker laws," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 73(C).
    6. Cynthia Bansak & Martha Starr, 2021. "Covid-19 shocks to education supply: how 200,000 U.S. households dealt with the sudden shift to distance learning," Review of Economics of the Household, Springer, vol. 19(1), pages 63-90, March.
    7. Schilt Kristen & Wiswall Matthew, 2008. "Before and After: Gender Transitions, Human Capital, and Workplace Experiences," The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, De Gruyter, vol. 8(1), pages 1-28, September.
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    Cited by:

    1. Luca Fumarco & Benjamin Harrell & Patrick Button & David Schwegman & E Dils, 2020. "Gender Identity, Race, and Ethnicity-based Discrimination in Access to Mental Health Care: Evidence from an Audit Correspondence Field Experiment," NBER Working Papers 28164, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    2. Taryn Eames, 2024. "Taryn versus Taryn (she/her) versus Taryn (they/them): A Field Experiment on Pronoun Disclosure and Hiring Discrimination," Working Papers tecipa-766, University of Toronto, Department of Economics.
    3. Abbate, Nicolás & Berniell, Inés & Coleff, Joaquín & Laguinge, Luis & Machelett, Margarita & Marchionni, Mariana & Pedrazzi, Julián & Pinto, María Florencia, 2024. "Discrimination against gay and transgender people in Latin America: A correspondence study in the rental housing market," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 87(C).
    4. Cameron Deal & Shea Greenberg & Gilbert Gonzales, 2024. "Sexual identity, poverty, and utilization of government services," Journal of Population Economics, Springer;European Society for Population Economics, vol. 37(2), pages 1-31, June.
    5. Enzo Brox & Riccardo Di Francesco, 2024. "The Cost of Coming Out," Papers 2403.03649, arXiv.org, revised Jun 2024.
    6. Klavs Ciprikis & Damien Cassells & Jenny Berrill, 2024. "Transgender self-employment outcomes: evidence from the USA," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 63(3), pages 871-896, October.
    7. Smith, Emil K. & Harrop, Erin N., 2024. "“That’s not at all what I needed” trans adults' perspectives on trans-affirming primary care and eating disorders," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 348(C).
    8. Nettuno, Laura, 2024. "Gender identity, labor market outcomes, and socioeconomic status: Evidence from Chile," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 87(C).
    9. Carpenter, Christopher S. & Feir, Donn. L. & Pendakur, Krishna & Warman, Casey, 2024. "Nonbinary Gender Identities and Earnings: Evidence from a National Census," IZA Discussion Papers 17377, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    10. Tomlin, Bryan, 2024. "Pronoun usage and gender identity's effects on market outcomes: Evidence from a preregistered field experiment," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 236(C).
    11. Danielle Xiaodan Morales, 2024. "The Mental Cost of Food Insecurity among LGBTQ+Americans," Population Research and Policy Review, Springer;Southern Demographic Association (SDA), vol. 43(3), pages 1-21, June.
    12. Michael E. Martell & Leanne Roncolato, 2023. "Economic Vulnerability of Sexual Minorities: Evidence from the US Household Pulse Survey," Population Research and Policy Review, Springer;Southern Demographic Association (SDA), vol. 42(2), pages 1-74, April.

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