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Prenatal Testosterone and the Earnings of Men and Women

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  • Anne C. Gielen
  • Jessica Holmes
  • Caitlin Myers

Abstract

Testosterone, which induces sexual differentiation of the male fetus, is believed to transfer from males to their littermates in placental mammals. Among humans, individuals with a male twin have been found to exhibit greater masculinization of sexually dimorphic attributes relative to those with a female twin. We therefore regard twinning as a plausible natural experiment to test the link between prenatal exposure to testosterone and labor market earnings. For men, the results suggest positive returns to testosterone exposure. For women, however, the results indicate that prenatal testosterone does not generate higher earnings and may even be associated with modest declines.

Suggested Citation

  • Anne C. Gielen & Jessica Holmes & Caitlin Myers, 2016. "Prenatal Testosterone and the Earnings of Men and Women," Journal of Human Resources, University of Wisconsin Press, vol. 51(1), pages 30-61.
    • Handle: RePEc:uwp:jhriss:v:51:y:2016:i:1:p:30-61
    Note: DOI: 10.3368/jhr.51.1.30
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    2. Adamecz, Anna & Jerrim, John & Pingault, Jean-Baptiste & Shure, Nikki, 2023. "Overconfident Boys: The Gender Gap in Mathematics Self-Assessment," IZA Discussion Papers 16180, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    3. Anne Ardila Brenøe, 2022. "Brothers increase women’s gender conformity," Journal of Population Economics, Springer;European Society for Population Economics, vol. 35(4), pages 1859-1896, October.
    4. Ong, David, 2024. "College rank, facial characteristics, and personality traits in China and the US," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 220(C), pages 369-387.
    5. Gielen, Anne C. & Zwiers, Esmée, 2018. "Biology and the Gender Gap in Educational Performance: The Role of Prenatal Testosterone in Test Scores," IZA Discussion Papers 11936, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    6. Peter, Noemi & Lundborg, Petter & Mikkelsen, Sara & Webbink, Dinand, 2018. "The effect of a sibling’s gender on earnings and family formation," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 54(C), pages 61-78.
    7. Peter, Noemi & Lundborg, Petter & Webbink, Dinand, 2015. "The Effect of a Sibling's Gender on Earnings, Education and Family Formation," IZA Discussion Papers 9128, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    8. Anne Ardila Brenøe, 2018. "Origins of gender norms: sibling gender composition and women's choice of occupation and partner," ECON - Working Papers 294, Department of Economics - University of Zurich.
    9. Cools, Angela & Patacchini, Eleonora, 2017. "Sibling Gender Composition and Women's Wages," IZA Discussion Papers 11001, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    10. Eibich, Peter & Kanabar, Ricky & Plum, Alexander & Schmied, Julian, 2022. "In and out of unemployment—Labour market transitions and the role of testosterone," Economics & Human Biology, Elsevier, vol. 46(C).
    11. Hughes, Amanda & Kumari, Meena, 2019. "Testosterone, risk, and socioeconomic position in British men: Exploring causal directionality," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 220(C), pages 129-140.
    12. Nye, John V.C. & Bryukhanov, Maksym & Kochergina, Ekaterina & Orel, Ekaterina & Polyachenko, Sergiy & Yudkevich, Maria, 2017. "The effects of prenatal testosterone on wages: Evidence from Russia," Economics & Human Biology, Elsevier, vol. 24(C), pages 43-60.
    13. Collins, Matthew, 2022. "Sibling Gender, Inheritance Customs and Educational Attainment: Evidence from Matrilineal and Patrilineal Societies," Working Papers 2022:5, Lund University, Department of Economics.
    14. Cobb-Clark, Deborah A., 2016. "Biology and Gender in the Labor Market," IZA Discussion Papers 10386, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).

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