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Une théorie des années quatre-vingt

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  • Jean-Paul Fitoussi
  • Jacques Le Cacheux

Abstract

[eng] Seen through the lenses of traditional macroeconomic analyses, the 1980s are highly puzzling. It is especially difficult to understand the persistence of high unemployment in Europe and the de-synchronisation of business cycles in the US and in Europe during the first half of the decade. New «facts» have occurred, which currently available models are not able adequately to explain. This paper offers an alternative analysis of business developments during the 1980s, building on a reconstructed theory of the open economy. Changes in real interest rates and real exchange rates play a major role in this reappraisal: they affect supply decisions and mark-up behaviour of firms operating in an imperfectly competitive environment. Intuitively, we contend that trade relations between the European and American economies are actually too tenuous to generate the traditionally assumed synchronisation of business cycles, and instead are dominated by interactions through financial markets. During the first half of the 80"s, both rising real interest rates and the real appreciation of the dollar induced European firms to raise their mark-ups and to attempt to contain production costs, especially labour costs. But what then happens to mark-ups is just as crucial as what happens to wages: an «exogenous» hike in either breeds «stagflation», insofar as it worsens the terms of the inflation unemployment tradeoff. It may thus be that macroeconomic disturbances — in particular the US «policy mix» — are transmitted negatively. The consequences of such adverse effects were aggravated by the resulting worsening in the fiscal and monetary policy environment, European governments then being impelled to go for pro-cyclical policies. Moreover, the persistent rise in real interest rates had major hysteresis effects that explain the protracted character of the European slump. Such effects also slowed down the recovery, at a time when a depreciating dollar and — moderately — declining real interest rates were favouring a renewal of economic activity in Europe. Slow adjustment to a regime of high real interest rates, together with pro-cyclical policies in Europe as a result of such a regime, explain both the strong persistence of the slump and the slowness of the recovery. As early as 1987, this new theory had led us to forecast a recovery in Europe. Today, the same reasoning induces us to predict that it may well last, even in the event of a recession in the US, but provided interest rates do not to rise further. [fre] Les années quatre-vingt présentent, pour les analyses macroéconomiques habituelles, des énigmes majeures, dont, aux premiers rangs, la persistance d'un chômage élevé en Europe et la désynchronisation des conjonctures américaine et européennes pendant la première moitié de la décennie. Des «faits» nouveaux, qui distinguent la période considérée sont mal pris en compte par les modèles usuels. Cet article propose une théorie alternative des développements conjoncturels de cette période, qui s'appuie sur une reconstruction de l'analyse de l'économie ouverte. Les évolutions des taux d'intérêt réels et des taux de change réels y jouent un rôle déterminant, en affectant les comportement d'offre et de fixation des marges d'entreprises opérant dans un environnement imparfaitement concurrentiel. L'intuition qui fonde cette analyse est que les liens commerciaux qui unissent les économies américaine et européennes sont trop ténus pour engendrer le synchronisme conjoncturel généralement supposé, mais que les interactions qui transitent par les marchés financiers sont, au contraire, très fortes. La hausse des taux d'intérêt réels et l'appréciation réelle du dollar, en la première moitié des années quatre-vingt, ont incité les entreprises européennes à augmenter leurs marges et à tenter de contenir leurs coûts de production, en particulier les salaires. Or ce qui advient aux marges des entreprises importe tout autant que ce qui en est des salaires : une augmentation «exogène» des unes ou des autres est porteuse de «stagflation», en ce qu'elle détériore les termes de l'arbitrage politique entre inflation et chômage. Il peut s'ensuivre une transmission négative des «chocs» macroéconomiques qu'ont engendrés les politiques pratiquées aux Etats- Unis. Les conséquences ont été accentuées par la dégradation des conditions d'exercice des politiques budgétaires et monétaires en Europe, qui ont contraint les gouvernements à adopter des orientations pro-cycliques. La hausse persistante des taux d'intérêt réels a, en outre, été à l'origine d'importants effets d'hystérésis, qui ont installé la récession européenne dans la durée et freiné la reprise, au moment où la dépréciation réelle de la monnaie américaine et une baisse — modérée, il est vrai — des taux d'intérêt réels favorisaient un nouvel essor européen. L'ajustement lent à un régime de taux d'intérêt réels élevés et le caractère pro-cyclique des politiques européennes qu'encourage un tel régime expliquent à la fois la forte persistance de la récession et la progressivité de la reprise. Cette théorie nouvelle nous avait conduits à prédire, dès 1987, le retour de la croissance en Europe. Elle nous incite aujourd'hui à prévoir qu'elle sera durable, sauf nouvelle hausse des taux d'intérêt, même dans l'éventualité d'une récession aux Etats-Unis.

Suggested Citation

  • Jean-Paul Fitoussi & Jacques Le Cacheux, 1989. "Une théorie des années quatre-vingt," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 29(1), pages 117-160.
  • Handle: RePEc:prs:rvofce:ofce_0751-6614_1989_num_29_1_1191
    DOI: 10.3406/ofce.1989.1191
    Note: DOI:10.3406/ofce.1989.1191
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    1. Jeffrey D. Sachs, 1985. "The Dollar and the Policy Mix: 1985," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 16(1), pages 117-197.
    2. Jean-Paul Fitoussi & Jacques Le Cacheux, 1985. "De la stagflation à la dépression," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 12(1), pages 157-176.
    3. Jean-Paul Fitoussi & Jacques Le Cacheux, 1988. "Ruptures et continuités dans l'orientation des politiques macroéconomiques des pays de l'OCDE," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 22(1), pages 131-164.
    4. Thomas J. Sargent & Neil Wallace, 1984. "Some Unpleasant Monetarist Arithmetic," Palgrave Macmillan Books, in: Brian Griffiths & Geoffrey E. Wood (ed.), Monetarism in the United Kingdom, pages 15-41, Palgrave Macmillan.
    5. Jeffrey Sachs, 1985. "The Dollar and the Policy Mix: 1985," NBER Working Papers 1636, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
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    8. Paul R. Krugman, 1985. "Is the strong dollar sustainable?," Proceedings - Economic Policy Symposium - Jackson Hole, Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, pages 103-155.
    9. Jérôme Henry & Jacques Le Cacheux, 1988. "Deux partages du revenu national des grands pays de l'OCDE," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 24(1), pages 103-124.
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    11. Dornbusch, Rudiger, 1987. "Exchange Rates and Prices," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 77(1), pages 93-106, March.
    12. Fitoussi, Jean-Paul & Le Cacheux, Jacques, 1988. "On Macroeconomic Implications of Price Setting in the Open Economy," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 78(2), pages 335-340, May.
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    14. Lucrezia Reichlin & Catherine Guillemineau, 1989. "Chômage et croissance en France et aux États-Unis. Une analyse de longue période," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 29(1), pages 161-184.
    15. Jeffrey D. Sachs, 1988. "Global Adjustments to a Shrinking U.S. Trade Deficit," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 19(2), pages 639-674.
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    17. Jacques Le Cacheux & Lucrezia Reichlin, 1989. "Taux de change et prix des importations : le cas des automobiles en Europe," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 27(1), pages 133-155.
    18. Stephen N. Marris, 1985. "The Decline and Fall of the Dollar: Some Policy Issues," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 16(1), pages 237-244.
    19. Olivier J. Blanchard & Lawrence H. Summers, 1984. "Perspectives on High World Real Interest Rates," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 15(2), pages 273-334.
    20. Jean-Paul Fitoussi & Jacques Le Cacheux & François Lecointe & Christian Vasseur, 1986. "Taux d'intérêt réels et activité économique. Un essai d'interprétation théorique et de mesure empirique," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 15(1), pages 145-173.
    21. Olivier Jean Blanchard & Stanley Fischer, 1989. "Lectures on Macroeconomics," MIT Press Books, The MIT Press, edition 1, volume 1, number 0262022834, April.
    22. Jacques Le Cacheux & Christian Vasseur, 1985. "Endettement extérieur et politique économique," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 13(1), pages 149-184.
    23. Jacques Le Cacheux & François Lecointe, 1987. "Changes réels et compétitivité de la France, l'Italie, la RFA et les Etats-Unis," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 20(1), pages 149-187.
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    1. Jean-Paul Fitoussi & Edmund S. Phelps, 1990. "Note sur les conséquences globales de la reconstruction de l'Europe de l'Est et l'épargne mondiale," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 34(1), pages 265-279.
    2. Jacky Fayolle, 1999. "D'une mondialisation à l'autre," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 69(1), pages 161-206.
    3. Jacky Fayolle & Paul-Emmanuel Micolet, 1997. "Réalité et déboires de l'espace conjoncturel européen : une régulation sans croissance ?," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 62(1), pages 5-28.
    4. repec:spo:wpmain:info:hdl:2441/5969 is not listed on IDEAS
    5. repec:hal:spmain:info:hdl:2441/5969 is not listed on IDEAS
    6. Paul-Emmanuel Micolet, 1998. "Positionnement conjoncturel du Royaume-Uni et UEM," Revue de l'OFCE, Programme National Persée, vol. 66(1), pages 127-169.

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