IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jijerp/v18y2021i9p4680-d544958.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Social Distancing Associations with COVID-19 Infection and Mortality Are Modified by Crowding and Socioeconomic Status

Author

Listed:
  • Trang VoPham

    (Epidemiology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Division of Public Health Sciences, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
    Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington School of Public Health, Seattle, WA 98195, USA)

  • Matthew D. Weaver

    (Departments of Medicine and Neurology, Division of Sleep and Circadian Disorders, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
    Division of Sleep Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA)

  • Gary Adamkiewicz

    (Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA)

  • Jaime E. Hart

    (Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
    Department of Medicine, Channing Division of Network Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA)

Abstract

The SARS-CoV-2 virus is a public health emergency. Social distancing is a key approach to slowing disease transmission. However, more evidence is needed on its efficacy, and little is known on the types of areas where it is more or less effective. We obtained county-level data on COVID-19 incidence and mortality during the first wave, smartphone-based average social distancing (0–5, where higher numbers indicate more social distancing), and census data on demographics and socioeconomic status. Using generalized linear mixed models with a Poisson distribution, we modeled associations between social distancing and COVID-19 incidence and mortality, and multiplicative interaction terms to assess effect modification. In multivariable models, each unit increase in social distancing was associated with a 26% decrease ( p < 0.0001) in COVID-19 incidence and a 31% decrease ( p < 0.0001) in COVID-19 mortality. Percent crowding, minority population, and median household income were all statistically significant effect modifiers. County-level increases in social distancing led to reductions in COVID-19 incidence and mortality but were most effective in counties with lower percentages of black residents, higher median household incomes, and with lower levels of household crowding.

Suggested Citation

  • Trang VoPham & Matthew D. Weaver & Gary Adamkiewicz & Jaime E. Hart, 2021. "Social Distancing Associations with COVID-19 Infection and Mortality Are Modified by Crowding and Socioeconomic Status," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(9), pages 1-8, April.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:18:y:2021:i:9:p:4680-:d:544958
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/9/4680/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/9/4680/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Andrea-Ioana Beleni & Stefan Borgmann, 2018. "Mumps in the Vaccination Age: Global Epidemiology and the Situation in Germany," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 15(8), pages 1-14, July.
    2. Mitze, Timo & Kosfeld, Reinhold & Rode, Johannes & Wälde, Klaus, 2020. "Face masks considerably reduce COVID-19 cases in Germany," Publications of Darmstadt Technical University, Institute for Business Studies (BWL) 124130, Darmstadt Technical University, Department of Business Administration, Economics and Law, Institute for Business Studies (BWL).
    3. Krieger, J. & Higgins, D.L., 2002. "Housing and health: Time again for public health action," American Journal of Public Health, American Public Health Association, vol. 92(5), pages 758-768.
    4. Julia Moreira Pescarini & Agostino Strina & Joilda Silva Nery & Lacita Menezes Skalinski & Kaio Vinicius Freitas de Andrade & Maria Lucia F Penna & Elizabeth B Brickley & Laura C Rodrigues & Mauricio , 2018. "Socioeconomic risk markers of leprosy in high-burden countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis," PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Public Library of Science, vol. 12(7), pages 1-20, July.
    5. Daniel J McGrail & Jianli Dai & Kathleen M McAndrews & Raghu Kalluri, 2020. "Enacting national social distancing policies corresponds with dramatic reduction in COVID19 infection rates," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 15(7), pages 1-9, July.
    6. McLaren John, 2021. "Racial Disparity in COVID-19 Deaths: Seeking Economic Roots with Census Data," The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, De Gruyter, vol. 21(3), pages 897-919, July.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Jian Yang & Jian Ming Luo & Rui Yao, 2022. "How Fear of COVID-19 Affects the Behavioral Intention of Festival Participants—A Case of the HANFU Festival," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(4), pages 1-17, February.
    2. Le Duc Huy & Nhi Thi Hong Nguyen & Phan Thanh Phuc & Chung-Chien Huang, 2022. "The Effects of Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions on COVID-19 Epidemic Growth Rate during Pre- and Post-Vaccination Period in Asian Countries," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(3), pages 1-15, January.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Timo Mitze & Reinhold Kosfeld, 2022. "The propagation effect of commuting to work in the spatial transmission of COVID-19," Journal of Geographical Systems, Springer, vol. 24(1), pages 5-31, January.
    2. Fetzer, T. & Rauh, C., 2022. "Pandemic pressures and public health care: evidence from England," Janeway Institute Working Papers 2204, Faculty of Economics, University of Cambridge.
    3. Kaylee Ramage & Meaghan Bell & Lisa Zaretsky & Laura Lee & Katrina Milaney, 2021. "Is the Right to Housing Being Realized in Canada? Learning from the Experiences of Tenants in Affordable Housing Units in a Large Canadian City," Societies, MDPI, vol. 11(2), pages 1-9, June.
    4. John McLaren & Su Wang, 2020. "Effects of Reduced Workplace Presence on COVID-19 Deaths: An Instrumental-Variables Approach," NBER Working Papers 28275, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    5. Peng Nie & Andrew E. Clarck & Conchita D'Ambrosio & Lanlin Ding, 2020. "Income-related health inequality in urban China (1991-2015): The role of homeownership and housing conditions," Working Papers 524, ECINEQ, Society for the Study of Economic Inequality.
    6. Brandily, Paul & Brébion, Clément & Briole, Simon & Khoury, Laura, 2021. "A poorly understood disease? The impact of COVID-19 on the income gradient in mortality over the course of the pandemic," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 140(C).
    7. Carolina Navarro & Luis Ayala & José Labeaga, 2010. "Housing deprivation and health status: evidence from Spain," Empirical Economics, Springer, vol. 38(3), pages 555-582, June.
    8. Augusto Cerqua & Roberta Di Stefano, 2022. "When did coronavirus arrive in Europe?," Statistical Methods & Applications, Springer;Società Italiana di Statistica, vol. 31(1), pages 181-195, March.
    9. Sima Alizadeh & Catherine E. Bridge & Bruce H. Judd & Valsamma Eapen, 2023. "Home Indoor Environmental Quality and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(4), pages 1-25, February.
    10. Milovanska-Farrington, Stefani, 2020. "Parents labor supply and childhood obesity: Evidence from Scotland," Economics & Human Biology, Elsevier, vol. 38(C).
    11. Raphael Bruce & Alexsandros Cavgias & Luis Meloni & Mario Remigio, 2021. "Under Pressure: Women's Leadership During the COVID-19 Crisis," Working Papers, Department of Economics 2021_19, University of São Paulo (FEA-USP).
    12. Bertocchi, Graziella & Dimico, Arcangelo, 2020. "COVID-19, Race, and Redlining," GLO Discussion Paper Series 603, Global Labor Organization (GLO).
    13. Dragan Gjorgjev & Mirjana Dimovska & George Morris & John Howie & Mirjana Borota Popovska & Marija Topuzovska Latkovikj, 2019. "How Good Is our Place—Implementation of the Place Standard Tool in North Macedonia," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(1), pages 1-16, December.
    14. Philipp Ager & James J Feigenbaum & Casper W Hansen & Hui Ren Tan, 2024. "How the Other Half Died: Immigration and Mortality in U.S. Cities," The Review of Economic Studies, Review of Economic Studies Ltd, vol. 91(1), pages 1-44.
    15. Demidova, Olga, 2021. "Methods of spatial econometrics and evaluation of government programs effectiveness," Applied Econometrics, Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration (RANEPA), vol. 64, pages 107-134.
    16. Judith Schröder & Susanne Moebus & Julita Skodra, 2022. "Selected Research Issues of Urban Public Health," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(9), pages 1-28, May.
    17. Abel Brodeur & David Gray & Anik Islam & Suraiya Bhuiyan, 2021. "A literature review of the economics of COVID‐19," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 35(4), pages 1007-1044, September.
    18. Juan Pablo Díaz-Sánchez & Moisés Obaco & Javier Romaní, 2022. "Measuring Overcrowding in Households with Children: Official vs. Actual Thresholds in the Ecuadorian Case," Child Indicators Research, Springer;The International Society of Child Indicators (ISCI), vol. 15(2), pages 383-398, April.
    19. Min Zhou & Wei Guo, 2023. "Self-rated Health and Objective Health Status Among Rural-to-Urban Migrants in China: A Healthy Housing Perspective," Population Research and Policy Review, Springer;Southern Demographic Association (SDA), vol. 42(1), pages 1-24, February.
    20. Austin L. Wright & Geet Chawla & Luke Chen & Anthony Farmer, 2020. "Tracking Mask Mandates during the COVID-19 Pandemic," Working Papers 2020-104, Becker Friedman Institute for Research In Economics.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:18:y:2021:i:9:p:4680-:d:544958. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.