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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Associated Factors during the Early Stage of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Norway

Author

Listed:
  • Tore Bonsaksen

    (Department of Health and Nursing Sciences, Faculty of Social and Health Sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, 2418 Elverum, Norway
    Faculty of Health Studies, VID Specialized University, 4306 Sandnes, Norway)

  • Trond Heir

    (Norwegian Center for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, 0484 Oslo, Norway
    Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0450 Oslo, Norway)

  • Inger Schou-Bredal

    (Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, 0372 Oslo, Norway)

  • Øivind Ekeberg

    (Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, 0424 Oslo, Norway)

  • Laila Skogstad

    (Department of Research, Sunnaas Rehabilitation Hospital HF, 1453 Bjørnemyr, Norway
    Department of Nursing and Health Promotion, Faculty of Health Sciences, Oslo Metropolitan University, 0167 Oslo, Norway)

  • Tine K. Grimholt

    (Faculty of Health Studies, VID Specialized University, 0370 Oslo, Norway
    Department of Acute Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, 0424 Oslo, Norway)

Abstract

The COVID-19 outbreak and the sudden lockdown of society in March 2020 had a large impact on people’s daily life and gave rise to concerns for the mental health in the general population. The aim of the study was to examine post-traumatic stress reactions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, the prevalence of symptom-defined post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and factors associated with post-traumatic stress in the Norwegian population during the early stages of the COVID-19 outbreak. A survey was administered via social media channels, to which a sample of 4527 adults (≥18 years) responded. Symptom-defined PTSD was measured with the PTSD Checklist for the DSM-5. The items were specifically linked to the COVID-19 pandemic. We used the DSM-5 diagnostic guidelines to categorize participants as fulfilling the PTSD symptom criteria or not. Associations with PTSD were examined with single and multiple logistic regression analyses. The prevalence of symptom-defined PTSD was 12.5% for men and 19.5% for women. PTSD was associated with lower age, female gender, lack of social support, and a range of pandemic-related variables such as economic concerns, expecting economic loss, having been in quarantine or isolation, being at high risk for complications from COVID-19 infection, and having concern for family and close friends. In conclusion, post-traumatic stress reactions appear to be common in the Norwegian population in the early stages of the COVID-19 outbreak. Concerns about finances, health, and family and friends seem to matter.

Suggested Citation

  • Tore Bonsaksen & Trond Heir & Inger Schou-Bredal & Øivind Ekeberg & Laila Skogstad & Tine K. Grimholt, 2020. "Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Associated Factors during the Early Stage of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Norway," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(24), pages 1-9, December.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:17:y:2020:i:24:p:9210-:d:459365
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Andrea R Ashbaugh & Stephanie Houle-Johnson & Christophe Herbert & Wissam El-Hage & Alain Brunet, 2016. "Psychometric Validation of the English and French Versions of the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5)," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 11(10), pages 1-16, October.
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    Cited by:

    1. Tore Bonsaksen & Mariyana Schoultz & Hilde Thygesen & Mary Ruffolo & Daicia Price & Janni Leung & Amy Østertun Geirdal, 2021. "Loneliness and Its Associated Factors Nine Months after the COVID-19 Outbreak: A Cross-National Study," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(6), pages 1-11, March.
    2. Inger Schou-Bredal & Laila Skogstad & Tine K. Grimholt & Tore Bonsaksen & Øivind Ekeberg & Trond Heir, 2021. "Concerns in the Norwegian Population during the Initial Lockdown Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(11), pages 1-9, June.
    3. José Luis Carballo & Ainhoa Coloma-Carmona & Sara Arteseros-Bañón & Virtudes Pérez-Jover, 2021. "The Moderating Role of Caregiving on Fear of COVID-19 and Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(11), pages 1-11, June.
    4. Tore Bonsaksen & Audun Brunes & Trond Heir, 2022. "Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in People with Visual Impairment Compared with the General Population," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(2), pages 1-11, January.
    5. Yvonne Schaffler & Martin Kuska & Antonia Barke & Bettina K. Doering & Katharina Gossmann & Zdenek Meier & Natalia Kascakova & Peter Tavel & Elke Humer & Christoph Pieh & Peter Stippl & Wolfgang Schim, 2022. "Psychotherapists’ Reports regarding the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Their Patients: A Cross-National Descriptive Study Based on the Social-Ecological Model (SEM)," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(11), pages 1-19, June.
    6. Gunnar Einvik & Toril Dammen & Waleed Ghanima & Trond Heir & Knut Stavem, 2021. "Prevalence and Risk Factors for Post-Traumatic Stress in Hospitalized and Non-Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(4), pages 1-12, February.
    7. Tore Bonsaksen & Laila Skogstad & Trond Heir & Øivind Ekeberg & Inger Schou-Bredal & Tine K. Grimholt, 2021. "Suicide Thoughts and Attempts in the Norwegian General Population during the Early Stage of the COVID-19 Outbreak," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(8), pages 1-9, April.
    8. Amy K. Østertun Geirdal & Daicia Price & Mariyana Schoultz & Hilde Thygesen & Mary Ruffolo & Janni Leung & Tore Bonsaksen, 2021. "The Significance of Demographic Variables on Psychosocial Health from the Early Stage and Nine Months after the COVID-19 Pandemic Outbreak. A Cross-National Study," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(8), pages 1-18, April.
    9. Laila Skogstad & Inger Schou-Bredal & Tore Bonsaksen & Trond Heir & Øivind Ekeberg & Tine Grimholt, 2021. "Concerns Related to the COVID-19 in Adult Norwegians during the First Outbreak in 2020: A Qualitative Approach," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(8), pages 1-14, April.
    10. Joy Benatov & Dominika Ochnik & Aleksandra M. Rogowska & Ana Arzenšek & Urša Mars Bitenc, 2022. "Prevalence and Sociodemographic Predictors of Mental Health in a Representative Sample of Young Adults from Germany, Israel, Poland, and Slovenia: A Longitudinal Study during the COVID-19 Pandemic," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(3), pages 1-18, January.
    11. Siv Karlsson Stafseth & Laila Skogstad & Johan Ræder & Ingvild Strand Hovland & Haakon Hovde & Øivind Ekeberg & Irene Lie, 2022. "Symptoms of Anxiety, Depression, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Health Care Personnel in Norwegian ICUs during the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic, a Prospective, Observational Cross-Sectio," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(12), pages 1-15, June.

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