IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jijerp/v17y2020i21p8155-d440017.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

COVID-19 Pandemic: Epidemiology, Etiology, Conventional and Non-Conventional Therapies

Author

Listed:
  • Abdur Rauf

    (Department of Chemistry, University of Swabi, Swabi, Anbar 23430, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan)

  • Tareq Abu-Izneid

    (Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Al Ain University, Al Ain Campus 64141, UAE)

  • Ahmed Olatunde

    (Department of Biochemistry, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauch 740272, Nigeria)

  • Anees Ahmed Khalil

    (University Institute of Diet and Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore 54000, Pakistan)

  • Fahad A. Alhumaydhi

    (Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Buraydah 52571, Saudi Arabia)

  • Tabussam Tufail

    (University Institute of Diet and Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore 54000, Pakistan)

  • Mohammad Ali Shariati

    (K.G. Razumovsky Moscow State University of Technologies and Management (the First Cossack University), 73 Zemlyanoy Val, 109004 Moscow, Russian)

  • Maksim Rebezov

    (V.M. Gorbatov Federal Research Center for Food Systems of Russian Academy of Sciences, 109316 Moscow, Russian
    Prokhorov General Physics Institute of the Russian Academy of Science, 119991 Moscow, Russian)

  • Zainab M. Almarhoon

    (Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia)

  • Yahia N. Mabkhot

    (Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia)

  • Abdulrhman Alsayari

    (Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Khalid University, Abha 61441, Saudi Arabia)

  • Kannan R. R. Rengasamy

    (Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam
    Faculty of Environment and Chemical Engineering, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam
    Indigenous Knowledge Systems Centre, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2745, North West Province, South Africa)

Abstract

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which reported in an outbreak in 2019 in Wuhan, Hubei province, China, is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The virus belongs to the beta-coronavirus class, along with the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus. Interestingly, the virus binds with angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 found in host cells, through the spike (S) protein that exists on its surface. This binding causes the entry of the virus into cells of the host organism. The actual mechanism used by the COVID-19 virus to induce disease is still speculative. A total of 44,322,504 cases, a 1,173,189 death toll and 32,486,703 recovery cases have been reported in 217 countries globally as of 28 October 2020. Symptoms from the infection of the virus include chest pain, fever, fatigue, nausea, and others. Acute respiratory stress syndrome, arrhythmia, and shock are some of the chronic manifestations recorded in severe COVID-19. Transmission is majorly by individual-to-individual through coughing, sneezing, etc. The lack of knowledge regarding the mechanism of and immune response to the virus has posed a challenge in the development of a novel drug and vaccine. Currently, treatment of the disease involves the use of anti-viral medications such as lopinavir, remdesivir, and other drugs. These drugs show some efficacy in the management of COVID-19. Studies are still on-going for the development of an ideal and novel drug for treatment. In terms of natural product intervention, Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCM) have been employed to alleviate the clinical manifestation and severity of the disease and have shown some efficacy. This review presents an updated detailed overview of COVID-19 and the virus, concerning its structure, epidemiology, symptoms and transmission, immune responses, and current interventions, and highlights the potential of TCM. It is anticipated that this review will further add to the understanding of COVID-19 and the virus, hence opening new research perspectives.

Suggested Citation

  • Abdur Rauf & Tareq Abu-Izneid & Ahmed Olatunde & Anees Ahmed Khalil & Fahad A. Alhumaydhi & Tabussam Tufail & Mohammad Ali Shariati & Maksim Rebezov & Zainab M. Almarhoon & Yahia N. Mabkhot & Abdulrhm, 2020. "COVID-19 Pandemic: Epidemiology, Etiology, Conventional and Non-Conventional Therapies," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(21), pages 1-32, November.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:17:y:2020:i:21:p:8155-:d:440017
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/21/8155/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/21/8155/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Fan Wu & Su Zhao & Bin Yu & Yan-Mei Chen & Wen Wang & Zhi-Gang Song & Yi Hu & Zhao-Wu Tao & Jun-Hua Tian & Yuan-Yuan Pei & Ming-Li Yuan & Yu-Ling Zhang & Fa-Hui Dai & Yi Liu & Qi-Min Wang & Jiao-Jiao , 2020. "Author Correction: A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China," Nature, Nature, vol. 580(7803), pages 7-7, April.
    2. Fan Wu & Su Zhao & Bin Yu & Yan-Mei Chen & Wen Wang & Zhi-Gang Song & Yi Hu & Zhao-Wu Tao & Jun-Hua Tian & Yuan-Yuan Pei & Ming-Li Yuan & Yu-Ling Zhang & Fa-Hui Dai & Yi Liu & Qi-Min Wang & Jiao-Jiao , 2020. "A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China," Nature, Nature, vol. 579(7798), pages 265-269, March.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Mateusz Puchalski & Halszka Kamińska & Marta Bartoszek & Michał Brzewski & Bożena Werner, 2022. "COVID-19-Vaccination-Induced Myocarditis in Teenagers: Case Series with Further Follow-Up," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(6), pages 1-8, March.
    2. Anca Diana Maierean & Damiana Maria Vulturar & Ioana Maria Chetan & Carmen-Bianca Crivii & Cornelia Bala & Stefan Cristian Vesa & Doina Adina Todea, 2023. "The Management of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Patients during the COVID-19 Pandemic as a Public Health Problem—Interactions with Sleep Efficacy and Mental Health," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(5), pages 1-21, February.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Giulia Orilisi & Marco Mascitti & Lucrezia Togni & Riccardo Monterubbianesi & Vincenzo Tosco & Flavia Vitiello & Andrea Santarelli & Angelo Putignano & Giovanna Orsini, 2021. "Oral Manifestations of COVID-19 in Hospitalized Patients: A Systematic Review," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(23), pages 1-19, November.
    2. David Gomez-Zepeda & Danielle Arnold-Schild & Julian Beyrle & Arthur Declercq & Ralf Gabriels & Elena Kumm & Annica Preikschat & Mateusz Krzysztof Łącki & Aurélie Hirschler & Jeewan Babu Rijal & Chris, 2024. "Thunder-DDA-PASEF enables high-coverage immunopeptidomics and is boosted by MS2Rescore with MS2PIP timsTOF fragmentation prediction model," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-18, December.
    3. José M. Núñez-Sánchez & Jesús Molina-Gómez & Pere Mercadé-Melé & Santiago Almadana-Abón, 2024. "Boosting Competitiveness Through the Alignment of Corporate Social Responsibility, Strategic Management and Compensation Systems in Technology Companies: A Case Study," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 16(21), pages 1-15, October.
    4. Alessandro Germani & Livia Buratta & Elisa Delvecchio & Claudia Mazzeschi, 2020. "Emerging Adults and COVID-19: The Role of Individualism-Collectivism on Perceived Risks and Psychological Maladjustment," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(10), pages 1-15, May.
    5. Gabriela Dias Noske & Yun Song & Rafaela Sachetto Fernandes & Rod Chalk & Haitem Elmassoudi & Lizbé Koekemoer & C. David Owen & Tarick J. El-Baba & Carol V. Robinson & Glaucius Oliva & Andre Schutzer , 2023. "An in-solution snapshot of SARS-COV-2 main protease maturation process and inhibition," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 14(1), pages 1-13, December.
    6. Karthikeyan Dhamotharan & Sophie M. Korn & Anna Wacker & Matthias A. Becker & Sebastian Günther & Harald Schwalbe & Andreas Schlundt, 2024. "A core network in the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid NTD mediates structural integrity and selective RNA-binding," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-16, December.
    7. Eugene Song & Jae-Eun Lee & Seola Kwon, 2021. "Effect of Public Empathy with Infection-Control Guidelines on Infection-Prevention Attitudes and Behaviors: Based on the Case of COVID-19," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(24), pages 1-18, December.
    8. Kow-Tong Chen, 2022. "Emerging Infectious Diseases and One Health: Implication for Public Health," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(15), pages 1-4, July.
    9. Shujuan Li & Lingli Zhu & Lidan Zhang & Guoyan Zhang & Hongyan Ren & Liang Lu, 2023. "Urbanization-Related Environmental Factors and Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome: A Review Based on Studies Taken in China," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(4), pages 1-20, February.
    10. Umit Cirakli & Ibrahim Dogan & Mehmet Gozlu, 2022. "The Relationship Between COVID-19 Cases and COVID-19 Testing: a Panel Data Analysis on OECD Countries," Journal of the Knowledge Economy, Springer;Portland International Center for Management of Engineering and Technology (PICMET), vol. 13(3), pages 1737-1750, September.
    11. Neeltje van Doremalen & Jonathan E. Schulz & Danielle R. Adney & Taylor A. Saturday & Robert J. Fischer & Claude Kwe Yinda & Nazia Thakur & Joseph Newman & Marta Ulaszewska & Sandra Belij-Rammerstorfe, 2022. "ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222) or nCoV-19-Beta (AZD2816) protect Syrian hamsters against Beta Delta and Omicron variants," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 13(1), pages 1-12, December.
    12. Jaeyong Lee & Calem Kenward & Liam J. Worrall & Marija Vuckovic & Francesco Gentile & Anh-Tien Ton & Myles Ng & Artem Cherkasov & Natalie C. J. Strynadka & Mark Paetzel, 2022. "X-ray crystallographic characterization of the SARS-CoV-2 main protease polyprotein cleavage sites essential for viral processing and maturation," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 13(1), pages 1-13, December.
    13. Seán R. O’Connor & Charlene Treanor & Elizabeth Ward & Robin A. Wickens & Abby O’Connell & Lucy A. Culliford & Chris A. Rogers & Eleanor A. Gidman & Tunde Peto & Paul C. Knox & Benjamin J. L. Burton &, 2022. "The COVID-19 Pandemic and Ophthalmic Care: A Qualitative Study of Patients with Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration (nAMD)," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(15), pages 1-10, August.
    14. Maria de Lourdes Aguiar-Oliveira & Aline Campos & Aline R. Matos & Caroline Rigotto & Adriana Sotero-Martins & Paulo F. P. Teixeira & Marilda M. Siqueira, 2020. "Wastewater-Based Epidemiology (WBE) and Viral Detection in Polluted Surface Water: A Valuable Tool for COVID-19 Surveillance—A Brief Review," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(24), pages 1-19, December.
    15. August F. Jernbom & Lovisa Skoglund & Elisa Pin & Ronald Sjöberg & Hanna Tegel & Sophia Hober & Elham Rostami & Annica Rasmusson & Janet L. Cunningham & Sebastian Havervall & Charlotte Thålin & Anna M, 2024. "Prevalent and persistent new-onset autoantibodies in mild to severe COVID-19," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-14, December.
    16. Wasim Ahmed & Josep Vidal-Alaball & Francesc Lopez Segui & Pedro A. Moreno-Sánchez, 2020. "A Social Network Analysis of Tweets Related to Masks during the COVID-19 Pandemic," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(21), pages 1-9, November.
    17. Ben Zhang & Chenxu Ming, 2023. "Digital Transformation and Open Innovation Planning of Response to COVID-19 Outbreak: A Systematic Literature Review and Future Research Agenda," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(3), pages 1-26, February.
    18. Yongin Choi & James Slghee Kim & Heejin Choi & Hyojung Lee & Chang Hyeong Lee, 2020. "Assessment of Social Distancing for Controlling COVID-19 in Korea: An Age-Structured Modeling Approach," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(20), pages 1-16, October.
    19. Abdel-Salam G. Abdel-Salam & Edward L. Boone & Ryad Ghanam, 2024. "Multivariate Techniques for Monitoring Susceptible, Exposed, Infected, Recovered, Death, and Vaccination Model Parameters for the COVID-19 Pandemic for Qatar," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 21(12), pages 1-20, November.
    20. Shankar Shambhu & Deepika Koundal & Prasenjit Das & Chetan Sharma, 2021. "Binary Classification of COVID-19 CT Images Using CNN: COVID Diagnosis Using CT," International Journal of E-Health and Medical Communications (IJEHMC), IGI Global, vol. 13(2), pages 1-13, July.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:17:y:2020:i:21:p:8155-:d:440017. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.