From Homogeneous to Heterogenized Molecular Catalysts for H 2 Production by Formic Acid Dehydrogenation: Mechanistic Aspects, Role of Additives, and Co-Catalysts

H 2 production via dehydrogenation of formic acid (HCOOH, FA), sodium formate (HCOONa, SF), or their mixtures, at near-ambient conditions, T < 100 °C, P = 1 bar, is intensively pursued, in the context of the most economically and environmentally eligible technologies. Herein we discuss molecular catalysts (ML), consisting of a metal center (M, e.g., Ru, Ir, Fe, Co) and an appropriate ligand (L), which exemplify highly efficient Turnover Numbers (TONs) and Turnover Frequencies (TOFs) in H 2 production from FA/SF. Typically, many of these ML catalysts require the presence of a cofactor that promotes their optimal cycling. Thus, we distinguish the concept of such cofactors in additives vs. co-catalysts: When used at high concentrations, that is stoichiometric amounts vs. the substrate (HCOONa, SF), the cofactors are sacrificial additives. In contrast, co-catalysts are used at much lower concentrations, that is at stoichiometric amount vs. the catalyst. The first part of the present review article discusses the mechanistic key steps and key controversies in the literature, taking into account theoretical modeling data. Then, in the second part, the role of additives and co-catalysts as well as the role of the solvent and the eventual inhibitory role of H 2 O are discussed in connection to the main mechanistic steps. For completeness, photons used as activators of ML catalysts are also discussed in the context of co-catalysts. In the third part, we discuss examples of promising hybrid nanocatalysts, consisting of a molecular catalyst ML attached on the surface of a nanoparticle. In the same context, we discuss nanoparticulate co-catalysts and hybrid co-catalysts, consisting of catalyst attached on the surface of a nanoparticle, and their role in the performance of molecular catalysts ML.