IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/quaeco/v95y2024icp316-325.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

The new bond on the block — Designing a carbon-linked bond for sustainable investment projects

Author

Listed:
  • Dahlen, Niklas
  • Fehrenkötter, Rieke
  • Schreiter, Maximilian

Abstract

Over the last decade, the green bond market experienced strong growth rates fueled by the need to combat climate change. However, the discourse on enhancing the effectiveness of green bonds primarily revolves around regulatory measures, often overlooking the possibility of designing inherent incentives. We show that a green bond with a coupon structure positively related to the carbon price development stimulates (early) investment in an emission-reducing project and creates higher net present values (NPVs) when applied in project financing. In our simulation-based framework, we model carbon prices using a geometric Brownian motion, and create a general optimal stopping time problem regarding the start of the project. The green bond in our setting carries the risk of default, also mitigated by its carbon price-linked coupon structure.

Suggested Citation

  • Dahlen, Niklas & Fehrenkötter, Rieke & Schreiter, Maximilian, 2024. "The new bond on the block — Designing a carbon-linked bond for sustainable investment projects," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 95(C), pages 316-325.
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:quaeco:v:95:y:2024:i:c:p:316-325
    DOI: 10.1016/j.qref.2024.04.010
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1062976924000632
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.qref.2024.04.010?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Marcin Liberadzki & Piotr Jaworski & Kamil Liberadzki, 2021. "Spread Analysis of the Sustainability-Linked Bonds Tied to an Issuer’s Greenhouse Gases Emissions Reduction Target," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(23), pages 1-12, November.
    2. Malcolm Baker & Daniel Bergstresser & George Serafeim & Jeffrey Wurgler, 2018. "Financing the Response to Climate Change: The Pricing and Ownership of U.S. Green Bonds," NBER Working Papers 25194, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    3. Consiglio, Andrea & Zenios, Stavros A., 2018. "Pricing and hedging GDP-linked bonds in incomplete markets," Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, Elsevier, vol. 88(C), pages 137-155.
    4. Nazifi, Fatemeh, 2013. "Modelling the price spread between EUA and CER carbon prices," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 56(C), pages 434-445.
    5. Goldstein, Robert & Ju, Nengjiu & Leland, Hayne, 2001. "An EBIT-Based Model of Dynamic Capital Structure," The Journal of Business, University of Chicago Press, vol. 74(4), pages 483-512, October.
    6. Lukas, Elmar & Welling, Andreas, 2014. "Timing and eco(nomic) efficiency of climate-friendly investments in supply chains," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 233(2), pages 448-457.
    7. Benz, Eva & Trück, Stefan, 2009. "Modeling the price dynamics of CO2 emission allowances," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 31(1), pages 4-15, January.
    8. Yang, Ming & Blyth, William & Bradley, Richard & Bunn, Derek & Clarke, Charlie & Wilson, Tom, 2008. "Evaluating the power investment options with uncertainty in climate policy," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 30(4), pages 1933-1950, July.
    9. Carr, Peter, 1987. "A Note on the Pricing of Commodity-Linked Bonds," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 42(4), pages 1071-1076, September.
    10. David L. McCollum & Wenji Zhou & Christoph Bertram & Harmen-Sytze Boer & Valentina Bosetti & Sebastian Busch & Jacques Després & Laurent Drouet & Johannes Emmerling & Marianne Fay & Oliver Fricko & Sh, 2018. "Author Correction: Energy investment needs for fulfilling the Paris Agreement and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals," Nature Energy, Nature, vol. 3(8), pages 699-699, August.
    11. Brauneis, Alexander & Mestel, Roland & Palan, Stefan, 2013. "Inducing low-carbon investment in the electric power industry through a price floor for emissions trading," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 53(C), pages 190-204.
    12. Christopher Kaminker & Fiona Stewart, 2012. "The Role of Institutional Investors in Financing Clean Energy," OECD Working Papers on Finance, Insurance and Private Pensions 23, OECD Publishing.
    13. Leland, Hayne E, 1994. "Corporate Debt Value, Bond Covenants, and Optimal Capital Structure," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 49(4), pages 1213-1252, September.
    14. Reboredo, Juan C., 2018. "Green bond and financial markets: Co-movement, diversification and price spillover effects," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 74(C), pages 38-50.
    15. J. Timmons Roberts & Romain Weikmans & Stacy-ann Robinson & David Ciplet & Mizan Khan & Danielle Falzon, 2021. "Rebooting a failed promise of climate finance," Nature Climate Change, Nature, vol. 11(3), pages 180-182, March.
    16. Compernolle, T. & Welkenhuysen, K. & Huisman, K. & Piessens, K. & Kort, P., 2017. "Off-shore enhanced oil recovery in the North Sea: The impact of price uncertainty on the investment decisions," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 101(C), pages 123-137.
    17. Simeth, Nagihan, 2022. "The value of external reviews in the secondary green bond market," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 46(PA).
    18. Gregor Dorfleitner & Sebastian Utz & Rongxin Zhang, 2022. "The pricing of green bonds: external reviews and the shades of green," Review of Managerial Science, Springer, vol. 16(3), pages 797-834, April.
    19. Tony Berrada & Leonie Engelhardt & Rajna Gibson & Philipp Krueger, 2022. "The Economics of Sustainability Linked Bonds," Swiss Finance Institute Research Paper Series 22-26, Swiss Finance Institute.
    20. Mo, Jianlei & Schleich, Joachim & Fan, Ying, 2018. "Getting ready for future carbon abatement under uncertainty – Key factors driving investment with policy implications," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 70(C), pages 453-464.
    21. Hintermann, Beat, 2010. "Allowance price drivers in the first phase of the EU ETS," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 59(1), pages 43-56, January.
    22. Umut Çetin & Michel Verschuere, 2009. "Pricing And Hedging In Carbon Emissions Markets," International Journal of Theoretical and Applied Finance (IJTAF), World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., vol. 12(07), pages 949-967.
    23. Eduardo Borensztein & Paolo Mauro, 2004. "The case for GDP-indexed bonds," Economic Policy, CEPR;CES;MSH, vol. 19(38), pages 165-216, April.
    24. Yu, Shiwei & Li, Zhenxi & Wei, Yi-Ming & Liu, Lancui, 2019. "A real option model for geothermal heating investment decision making: Considering carbon trading and resource taxes," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 189(C).
    25. Hachenberg, B. & Schiereck, D., 2018. "Are green bonds priced differently from conventional bonds?," Publications of Darmstadt Technical University, Institute for Business Studies (BWL) 109709, Darmstadt Technical University, Department of Business Administration, Economics and Law, Institute for Business Studies (BWL).
    26. Luis H. Zamarioli & Pieter Pauw & Michael König & Hugues Chenet, 2021. "The climate consistency goal and the transformation of global finance," Nature Climate Change, Nature, vol. 11(7), pages 578-583, July.
    27. Eric C. Chang & Chan‐Wung Kim, 1988. "Day of the week effects and commodity price changes," Journal of Futures Markets, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 8(2), pages 229-241, April.
    28. Robert S. Pindyck, 1999. "The Long-Run Evolutions of Energy Prices," The Energy Journal, International Association for Energy Economics, vol. 0(Number 2), pages 1-27.
    29. Dirk Heine & Willi Semmler & Mariana Mazzucato & João Paulo Braga & Michael Flaherty & Arkady Gevorkyan & Erin Hayde & Siavash Radpour, 2019. "Financing Low-Carbon Transitions through Carbon Pricing and Green Bonds," Vierteljahrshefte zur Wirtschaftsforschung / Quarterly Journal of Economic Research, DIW Berlin, German Institute for Economic Research, vol. 88(2), pages 29-49.
    30. Conrad, Christian & Rittler, Daniel & Rotfuß, Waldemar, 2012. "Modeling and explaining the dynamics of European Union Allowance prices at high-frequency," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 34(1), pages 316-326.
    31. Thomas Aspinall & Adrian Gepp & Geoff Harris & Simone Kelly & Colette Southam & Bruce Vanstone, 2021. "Estimation of a term structure model of carbon prices through state space methods: The European Union emissions trading scheme," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 61(2), pages 3797-3819, June.
    32. Flora, Maria & Vargiolu, Tiziano, 2020. "Price dynamics in the European Union Emissions Trading System and evaluation of its ability to boost emission-related investment decisions," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 280(1), pages 383-394.
    33. Paolella, Marc S. & Taschini, Luca, 2008. "An econometric analysis of emission allowance prices," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 32(10), pages 2022-2032, October.
    34. Szolgayova, Jana & Fuss, Sabine & Obersteiner, Michael, 2008. "Assessing the effects of CO2 price caps on electricity investments--A real options analysis," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 36(10), pages 3974-3981, October.
    35. Wang, Xingwei & Cai, Yanpeng & Dai, Chao, 2014. "Evaluating China's biomass power production investment based on a policy benefit real options model," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 73(C), pages 751-761.
    36. Broadstock, David C. & Cheng, Louis T.W., 2019. "Time-varying relation between black and green bond price benchmarks: Macroeconomic determinants for the first decade," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 29(C), pages 17-22.
    37. Fuss, Sabine & Johansson, Daniel J.A. & Szolgayova, Jana & Obersteiner, Michael, 2009. "Impact of climate policy uncertainty on the adoption of electricity generating technologies," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 37(2), pages 733-743, February.
    38. Boersen, Arieke & Scholtens, Bert, 2014. "The relationship between European electricity markets and emission allowance futures prices in phase II of the EU (European Union) emission trading scheme," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 74(C), pages 585-594.
    39. Torsten Ehlers & Frank Packer, 2017. "Green bond finance and certification," BIS Quarterly Review, Bank for International Settlements, September.
    40. Stiglitz, Joseph E., 2019. "Addressing climate change through price and non-price interventions," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 119(C), pages 594-612.
    41. Julien Chevallier & Benoît Sévi, 2014. "On the Stochastic Properties of Carbon Futures Prices," Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 58(1), pages 127-153, May.
    42. Walsh, D.M. & O'Sullivan, K. & Lee, W.T. & Devine, M.T., 2014. "When to invest in carbon capture and storage technology: A mathematical model," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 42(C), pages 219-225.
    43. Olivier David Zerbib, 2019. "The effect of pro-environmental preferences on bond prices: Evidence from green bonds," Post-Print halshs-02008641, HAL.
    44. Schwartz, Eduardo S, 1982. "The Pricing of Commodity-Linked Bonds," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 37(2), pages 525-539, May.
    45. repec:dau:papers:123456789/4222 is not listed on IDEAS
    46. Zerbib, Olivier David, 2019. "The effect of pro-environmental preferences on bond prices: Evidence from green bonds," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 98(C), pages 39-60.
    47. Seifert, Jan & Uhrig-Homburg, Marliese & Wagner, Michael, 2008. "Dynamic behavior of CO2 spot prices," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 56(2), pages 180-194, September.
    48. David L. McCollum & Wenji Zhou & Christoph Bertram & Harmen-Sytze Boer & Valentina Bosetti & Sebastian Busch & Jacques Després & Laurent Drouet & Johannes Emmerling & Marianne Fay & Oliver Fricko & Sh, 2018. "Energy investment needs for fulfilling the Paris Agreement and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals," Nature Energy, Nature, vol. 3(7), pages 589-599, July.
    49. repec:oup:ecpoli:v:19:y:2004:i:38:p:165-216 is not listed on IDEAS
    50. Zhang, M.M. & Wang, Qunwei & Zhou, Dequn & Ding, H., 2019. "Evaluating uncertain investment decisions in low-carbon transition toward renewable energy," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 240(C), pages 1049-1060.
    51. Maria Jua Bachelet & Leonardo Becchetti & Stefano Manfredonia, 2019. "The Green Bonds Premium Puzzle: The Role of Issuer Characteristics and Third-Party Verification," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 11(4), pages 1-22, February.
    52. Eftichios S. Sartzetakis, 2021. "Green bonds as an instrument to finance low carbon transition," Economic Change and Restructuring, Springer, vol. 54(3), pages 755-779, August.
    53. Yue Liu & Lixin Tian & Zhuyun Xie & Zaili Zhen & Huaping Sun, 2021. "Option to survive or surrender: carbon asset management and optimization in thermal power enterprises from China," Papers 2104.04729, arXiv.org.
    54. French, Kenneth R., 1980. "Stock returns and the weekend effect," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 8(1), pages 55-69, March.
    55. Somayeh Heydari & Nick Ovenden & Afzal Siddiqui, 2012. "Real options analysis of investment in carbon capture and sequestration technology," Computational Management Science, Springer, vol. 9(1), pages 109-138, February.
    56. Tang, Amy & Chiara, Nicola & Taylor, John E., 2012. "Financing renewable energy infrastructure: Formulation, pricing and impact of a carbon revenue bond," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 45(C), pages 691-703.
    57. Koziol, Christian & Lawrenz, Jochen, 2010. "Optimal design of rating-trigger step-up bonds: Agency conflicts versus asymmetric information," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 16(2), pages 182-204, April.
    58. Zili Zhu & Paul Graham & Luke Reedman & Thomas Lo, 2009. "A scenario-based integrated approach for modeling carbon price risk," Decisions in Economics and Finance, Springer;Associazione per la Matematica, vol. 32(1), pages 35-48, May.
    59. Huang, Yumeng & Dai, Xingyu & Wang, Qunwei & Zhou, Dequn, 2021. "A hybrid model for carbon price forecastingusing GARCH and long short-term memory network," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 285(C).
    60. Mo, Jian-Lei & Agnolucci, Paolo & Jiang, Mao-Rong & Fan, Ying, 2016. "The impact of Chinese carbon emission trading scheme (ETS) on low carbon energy (LCE) investment," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 89(C), pages 271-283.
    61. Angeloantonio Russo & Massimo Mariani & Alessandra Caragnano, 2021. "Exploring the determinants of green bond issuance: Going beyond the long‐lasting debate on performance consequences," Business Strategy and the Environment, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 30(1), pages 38-59, January.
    62. Black, Fischer & Scholes, Myron S, 1973. "The Pricing of Options and Corporate Liabilities," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 81(3), pages 637-654, May-June.
    63. Laurikka, Harri, 2006. "Option value of gasification technology within an emissions trading scheme," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 34(18), pages 3916-3928, December.
    64. Qadan, Mahmoud & Idilbi-Bayaa, Yasmeen, 2021. "The day-of-the-week-effect on the volatility of commodities," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 71(C).
    65. Daskalakis, George & Psychoyios, Dimitris & Markellos, Raphael N., 2009. "Modeling CO2 emission allowance prices and derivatives: Evidence from the European trading scheme," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 33(7), pages 1230-1241, July.
    66. Eyraud, Luc & Clements, Benedict & Wane, Abdoul, 2013. "Green investment: Trends and determinants," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 60(C), pages 852-865.
    67. Britta Hachenberg & Dirk Schiereck, 2018. "Are green bonds priced differently from conventional bonds?," Journal of Asset Management, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 19(6), pages 371-383, October.
    68. Zhou, Feite & Huang, Zhehao & Zhang, Changhong, 2022. "Carbon price forecasting based on CEEMDAN and LSTM," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 311(C).
    69. Abadie, Luis M. & Chamorro, José M., 2008. "European CO2 prices and carbon capture investments," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 30(6), pages 2992-3015, November.
    70. Segnon, Mawuli & Lux, Thomas & Gupta, Rangan, 2017. "Modeling and forecasting the volatility of carbon dioxide emission allowance prices: A review and comparison of modern volatility models," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 69(C), pages 692-704.
    71. Wang, Minggang & Zhu, Mengrui & Tian, Lixin, 2022. "A novel framework for carbon price forecasting with uncertainties," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 112(C).
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Joao Leitao & Joaquim Ferreira & Ernesto Santibanez‐Gonzalez, 2021. "Green bonds, sustainable development and environmental policy in the European Union carbon market," Business Strategy and the Environment, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 30(4), pages 2077-2090, May.
    2. Jankovic, Irena & Vasic, Vladimir & Kovacevic, Vlado, 2022. "Does transparency matter? Evidence from panel analysis of the EU government green bonds," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 114(C).
    3. Arif, Muhammad & Naeem, Muhammad Abubakr & Farid, Saqib & Nepal, Rabindra & Jamasb, Tooraj, 2022. "Diversifier or more? Hedge and safe haven properties of green bonds during COVID-19," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 168(C).
    4. Kocaarslan, Baris, 2023. "Funding liquidity risk and the volatility of U.S. municipal green bonds during the COVID-19 pandemic," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 58(PD).
    5. Román Ferrer & Rafael Benítez & Vicente J. Bolós, 2021. "Interdependence between Green Financial Instruments and Major Conventional Assets: A Wavelet-Based Network Analysis," Mathematics, MDPI, vol. 9(8), pages 1-20, April.
    6. Roy Kouwenberg & Chenglong Zheng, 2023. "A Review of the Global Climate Finance Literature," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(2), pages 1-32, January.
    7. Kocaarslan, Baris & Mushtaq, Rizwan, 2024. "The impact of liquidity conditions on the time-varying link between U.S. municipal green bonds and major risky markets during the COVID-19 crisis: A machine learning approach," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 184(C).
    8. Reboredo, Juan C. & Ugolini, Andrea & Aiube, Fernando Antonio Lucena, 2020. "Network connectedness of green bonds and asset classes," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 86(C).
    9. Reboredo, Juan C. & Ugolini, Andrea & Ojea-Ferreiro, Javier, 2022. "Do green bonds de-risk investment in low-carbon stocks?," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 108(C).
    10. Tiwari, Aviral Kumar & Aikins Abakah, Emmanuel Joel & Adekoya, Oluwasegun B. & Hammoudeh, Shawkat, 2023. "What do we know about the price spillover between green bonds and Islamic stocks and stock market indices?," Global Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 55(C).
    11. Naeem, Muhammad Abubakr & Farid, Saqib & Ferrer, Román & Shahzad, Syed Jawad Hussain, 2021. "Comparative efficiency of green and conventional bonds pre- and during COVID-19: An asymmetric multifractal detrended fluctuation analysis," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 153(C).
    12. Arif, Muhammad & Hasan, Mudassar & Alawi, Suha M. & Naeem, Muhammad Abubakr, 2021. "COVID-19 and time-frequency connectedness between green and conventional financial markets," Global Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 49(C).
    13. Pham, Linh & Cepni, Oguzhan, 2022. "Extreme directional spillovers between investor attention and green bond markets," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 80(C), pages 186-210.
    14. Piñeiro-Chousa, Juan & López-Cabarcos, M.Ángeles & Caby, Jérôme & Šević, Aleksandar, 2021. "The influence of investor sentiment on the green bond market," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 162(C).
    15. Braga, Joao Paulo & Semmler, Willi & Grass, Dieter, 2021. "De-risking of green investments through a green bond market – Empirics and a dynamic model," Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, Elsevier, vol. 131(C).
    16. Shashank Bansal & Satya Prakash Mani & Himanshu Gupta & Shipra Maurya, 2023. "Sustainable development of the green bond markets in India: Challenges and strategies," Sustainable Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 31(1), pages 237-252, February.
    17. Akhtaruzzaman, Md & Banerjee, Ameet Kumar & Ghardallou, Wafa & Umar, Zaghum, 2022. "Is greenness an optimal hedge for sectoral stock indices?," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 117(C).
    18. Umar, Zaghum & Abrar, Afsheen & Hadhri, Sinda & Sokolova, Tatiana, 2023. "The connectedness of oil shocks, green bonds, sukuks and conventional bonds," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 119(C).
    19. Pham, Linh & Nguyen, Canh Phuc, 2022. "How do stock, oil, and economic policy uncertainty influence the green bond market?," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 45(C).
    20. Kocaarslan, Baris & Soytas, Ugur, 2023. "The role of major markets in predicting the U.S. municipal green bond market performance: New evidence from machine learning models," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 196(C).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    Carbon price; Optimal stopping; Emission-reducing projects; Optimal corporate investment; Index-linked bond; Carbon finance;
    All these keywords.

    JEL classification:

    • G11 - Financial Economics - - General Financial Markets - - - Portfolio Choice; Investment Decisions
    • G12 - Financial Economics - - General Financial Markets - - - Asset Pricing; Trading Volume; Bond Interest Rates

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:quaeco:v:95:y:2024:i:c:p:316-325. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/inca/620167 .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.