IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/aosoci/v40y2015icp61-77.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Target difficulty, target flexibility, and firm performance: Evidence from business units’ targets

Author

Listed:
  • Arnold, Markus C.
  • Artz, Martin

Abstract

Despite the importance of target setting for firms, prior research offers mixed evidence regarding performance consequences of target difficulty levels. While experimental research suggests that setting difficult targets can increase performance, empirical evidence in field studies is mixed and ambiguous. To explain this ambiguity, we introduce and analyze firms’ target flexibility with regard to adjusting targets intra-year. We argue that target flexibility is associated with both target difficulty and firm performance in the field and therefore can significantly contribute to an understanding of their relationship. Our examination of survey and archival data from 97 firms supports our predictions. We find that the difficulty of business unit targets exerts a direct positive effect, but an indirect negative effect on firm performance where the latter is partly mediated by firms’ target flexibility. Additionally, we find that the predominant use of targets for planning and coordination (vs. performance evaluation) mitigates both performance effects. Our findings may help explain mixed field study evidence regarding the effects of target difficulty.

Suggested Citation

  • Arnold, Markus C. & Artz, Martin, 2015. "Target difficulty, target flexibility, and firm performance: Evidence from business units’ targets," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 40(C), pages 61-77.
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:aosoci:v:40:y:2015:i:c:p:61-77
    DOI: 10.1016/j.aos.2014.12.002
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361368214001032
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.aos.2014.12.002?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Linda Babcock & George Loewenstein, 1997. "Explaining Bargaining Impasse: The Role of Self-Serving Biases," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 11(1), pages 109-126, Winter.
    2. Martin L. Weitzman, 1980. "The "Ratchet Principle" and Performance Incentives," Bell Journal of Economics, The RAND Corporation, vol. 11(1), pages 302-308, Spring.
    3. Shannon W. Anderson & Henri C. Dekker & Karen L. Sedatole, 2010. "An Empirical Examination of Goals and Performance-to-Goal Following the Introduction of an Incentive Bonus Plan with Participative Goal Setting," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 56(1), pages 90-109, January.
    4. Ittner, Christopher D. & Larcker, David F., 2001. "Assessing empirical research in managerial accounting: a value-based management perspective," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 32(1-3), pages 349-410, December.
    5. Ittner, Christopher D. & Larcker, David F. & Randall, Taylor, 2003. "Performance implications of strategic performance measurement in financial services firms," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 28(7-8), pages 715-741.
    6. Brashear, Thomas G. & Manolis, Chris & Brooks, Charles M., 2005. "The effects of control, trust, and justice on salesperson turnover," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 58(3), pages 241-249, March.
    7. Widener, Sally K., 2007. "An empirical analysis of the levers of control framework," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 32(7-8), pages 757-788.
    8. Bo-Göran Ekholm & Jan Wallin, 2011. "The Impact of Uncertainty and Strategy on the Perceived Usefulness of Fixed and Flexible Budgets," Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 38(1-2), pages 145-164, January.
    9. Bonner, Sarah E. & Sprinkle, Geoffrey B., 2002. "The effects of monetary incentives on effort and task performance: theories, evidence, and a framework for research," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 27(4-5), pages 303-345.
    10. Luft, Joan & Shields, Michael D., 2003. "Mapping management accounting: graphics and guidelines for theory-consistent empirical research," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 28(2-3), pages 169-249.
    11. Michael R. Ransom & Gordon B. Dahl, 1999. "Does Where You Stand Depend on Where You Sit? Tithing Donations and Self-Serving Beliefs," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 89(4), pages 703-727, September.
    12. Lambert, Ra & Larcker, Df, 1987. "An Analysis Of The Use Of Accounting And Market Measures Of Performance In Executive-Compensation Contracts," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 25, pages 85-129.
    13. Shields, J. F. & Shields, M. D., 1998. "Antecedents of participative budgeting," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 23(1), pages 49-76, January.
    14. Brownell, P, 1983. "The Motivational Impact Of Management-By-Exception In A Budgetary Context," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 21(2), pages 456-472.
    15. Hirst, Mark K. & Lowy, Steven M., 1990. "The linear additive and interactive effects of budgetary goal difficulty and feedback on performance," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 15(5), pages 425-436.
    16. Sprinkle, Geoffrey B., 2003. "Perspectives on experimental research in managerial accounting," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 28(2-3), pages 287-318.
    17. Laurence Van Lent, 2007. "Endogeneity in Management Accounting Research: A Comment," European Accounting Review, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 16(1), pages 197-205.
    18. Chenhall, Robert H., 2003. "Management control systems design within its organizational context: findings from contingency-based research and directions for the future," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 28(2-3), pages 127-168.
    19. Marginson, David & Ogden, Stuart, 2005. "Coping with ambiguity through the budget: the positive effects of budgetary targets on managers' budgeting behaviours," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 30(5), pages 435-456, July.
    20. van Lent, L.A.G.M., 2007. "Endogeneity in management accounting research : A comment," Other publications TiSEM 8bcd5bc8-5fdd-4aa4-9b3f-8, Tilburg University, School of Economics and Management.
    21. Webb, R. Alan, 2002. "The impact of reputation and variance investigations on the creation of budget slack," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 27(4-5), pages 361-378.
    22. Luft, Joan & Shields, Michael D., 2003. "Erratum to "Mapping management accounting: graphics and guidelines for theory-consistent empirical research" [Accounting Organizations and Society 28 (2003) 169-249]," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 28(7-8), pages 815-815.
    23. Jean-Jacques Laffont & Jean Tirole, 1993. "A Theory of Incentives in Procurement and Regulation," MIT Press Books, The MIT Press, edition 1, volume 1, number 0262121743, April.
    24. Shields, Michael D. & Deng, F. Johnny & Kato, Yutaka, 2000. "The design and effects of control systems: tests of direct- and indirect-effects models," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 25(2), pages 185-202, February.
    25. Nouri, H. & Parker, R. J., 1998. "The relationship between budget participation and job performance: The roles of budget adequacy and organizational commitment," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 23(5-6), pages 467-483.
    26. Karuna, Christo, 2007. "Industry product market competition and managerial incentives," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 43(2-3), pages 275-297, July.
    27. Cohen-Charash, Yochi & Spector, Paul E., 2001. "The Role of Justice in Organizations: A Meta-Analysis," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Elsevier, vol. 86(2), pages 278-321, November.
    28. Breusch, T S & Pagan, A R, 1979. "A Simple Test for Heteroscedasticity and Random Coefficient Variation," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 47(5), pages 1287-1294, September.
    29. Xinshu Zhao & John G. Lynch & Qimei Chen, 2010. "Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and Truths about Mediation Analysis," Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Research Inc., vol. 37(2), pages 197-206, August.
    30. Van der Stede, Wim A. & Young, S. Mark & Chen, Clara Xiaoling, 2005. "Assessing the quality of evidence in empirical management accounting research: The case of survey studies," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 30(7-8), pages 655-684.
    31. Bouwens, Jan & Kroos, Peter, 2011. "Target ratcheting and effort reduction," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 51(1-2), pages 171-185, February.
    32. Lewellen, Wilbur G. & Park, Taewoo & Ro, Byung T., 1996. "Self-serving behavior in managers' discretionary information disclosure decisions," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 21(2), pages 227-251, April.
    33. Birnberg, Jacob G. & Frieze, Irene Hanson & Shields, Michael D., 1977. "The role of attribution theory in control systems," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 2(3), pages 189-200, June.
    34. Parker, Robert J. & Kyj, Larissa, 2006. "Vertical information sharing in the budgeting process," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 31(1), pages 27-45, January.
    35. Sendhil Mullainathan & Marianne Bertrand, 2001. "Do People Mean What They Say? Implications for Subjective Survey Data," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 91(2), pages 67-72, May.
    36. Burney, Laurie L. & Henle, Christine A. & Widener, Sally K., 2009. "A path model examining the relations among strategic performance measurement system characteristics, organizational justice, and extra- and in-role performance," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 34(3-4), pages 305-321, April.
    37. Fullerton, Rosemary R. & Kennedy, Frances A. & Widener, Sally K., 2013. "Management accounting and control practices in a lean manufacturing environment," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 38(1), pages 50-71.
    38. Bisbe, Josep & Batista-Foguet, Joan-Manuel & Chenhall, Robert, 2007. "Defining management accounting constructs: A methodological note on the risks of conceptual misspecification," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 32(7-8), pages 789-820.
    39. Bruns, Wj & Waterhouse, Jh, 1975. "Budgetary Control And Organization Structure," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 13(2), pages 177-203.
    40. Jansen, E. Pieter & Merchant, Kenneth A. & Van der Stede, Wim A., 2009. "National differences in incentive compensation practices: The differing roles of financial performance measurement in the United States and the Netherlands," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 34(1), pages 58-84, January.
    41. Fisher, Joseph & Frederickson, James R. & Peffer, Sean A., 2002. "The effect of information asymmetry on negotiated budgets: an empirical investigation," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 27(1-2), pages 27-43.
    42. Michael C. Jensen, 2003. "Paying People to Lie: the Truth about the Budgeting Process," European Financial Management, European Financial Management Association, vol. 9(3), pages 379-406, September.
    43. Robert Simons, 1988. "Analysis of the organizational characteristics related to tight budget goals," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 5(1), pages 267-283, September.
    44. Leone, Andrew J. & Rock, Steve, 2002. "Empirical tests of budget ratcheting and its effect on managers' discretionary accrual choices," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 33(1), pages 43-67, February.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Thuy‐Van Tran & Janne Järvinen, 2022. "Understanding the concept of subjectivity in performance evaluation and its effects on perceived procedural justice across contexts," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 62(3), pages 4079-4108, September.
    2. Fukushima, Kazunori & Yamada, Akihiro, 2024. "Does budget target setting lead managers to engage in unethical behavior for the organization?," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 56(4).
    3. Christian Daumoser & Bernhard Hirsch & Matthias Sohn, 2018. "Honesty in budgeting: a review of morality and control aspects in the budgetary slack literature," Journal of Management Control: Zeitschrift für Planung und Unternehmenssteuerung, Springer, vol. 29(2), pages 115-159, August.
    4. Arnold, Markus C. & Gillenkirch, Robert M., 2015. "Using negotiated budgets for planning and performance evaluation: An experimental study," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 43(C), pages 1-16.
    5. Clara Xiaoling Chen & Minjeong (MJ) Kim & Laura Yue Li & Wei Zhu, 2022. "Accounting Performance Goals in CEO Compensation Contracts and Corporate Risk Taking," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 68(8), pages 6039-6058, August.
    6. ShogoMlozi, 2017. "A Post Hoc Analysis of Learning Orientation–Innovation–Performance in the Hospitality Industry," Academica Turistica - Tourism and Innovation Journal, University of Primorska Press, vol. 10(1), pages 27-41.
    7. Deore, Aishwarrya & Mahlendorf, Matthias D. & Wu, Fan, 2023. "CEOs' structural power, prestige power, and target ratcheting," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 110(C).
    8. Arnold, Markus & Artz, Martin, 2019. "The use of a single budget or separate budgets for planning and performance evaluation," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 73(C), pages 50-67.
    9. Khandelwal, Urvashi & Sharma, Prateek & Nagarajan, Viswanathan, 2022. "Valuation effects of emissions reduction target disclosures," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 49(C).
    10. Karen Maas, 2018. "Do Corporate Social Performance Targets in Executive Compensation Contribute to Corporate Social Performance?," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 148(3), pages 573-585, March.
    11. Chua, Wai Fong & Fiedler, Tanya & Boedker, Christina, 2024. "Projecting, infrastructuring and calculating: From an In vitro to an In vivo carbon market," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 112(C).
    12. Isoboye Jacob Damieibi (PhD), 2021. "Effect of Internal Audit Practices On Aggregate Fiscal Discipline of Government Organisations in Nigeria," International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), vol. 5(6), pages 08-28, June.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Arnold, Markus & Artz, Martin, 2019. "The use of a single budget or separate budgets for planning and performance evaluation," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 73(C), pages 50-67.
    2. Christian Daumoser & Bernhard Hirsch & Matthias Sohn, 2018. "Honesty in budgeting: a review of morality and control aspects in the budgetary slack literature," Journal of Management Control: Zeitschrift für Planung und Unternehmenssteuerung, Springer, vol. 29(2), pages 115-159, August.
    3. Christoph Feichter & Isabella Grabner, 2020. "Empirische Forschung zu Management Control – Ein Überblick und neue Trends [Empirical Management Control Reserach—An Overview and Future Directions]," Schmalenbach Journal of Business Research, Springer, vol. 72(2), pages 149-181, June.
    4. Fukushima, Kazunori & Yamada, Akihiro, 2024. "Does budget target setting lead managers to engage in unethical behavior for the organization?," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 56(4).
    5. Kilfoyle, Eksa & Richardson, Alan J., 2011. "Agency and structure in budgeting: Thesis, antithesis and synthesis," CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ACCOUNTING, Elsevier, vol. 22(2), pages 183-199.
    6. Staci A. Kenno & Michelle C. Lau & Barbara J. Sainty, 2018. "In Search of a Theory of Budgeting: A Literature Review," Accounting Perspectives, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 17(4), pages 507-553, December.
    7. Derfuss, Klaus, 2016. "Reconsidering the participative budgeting–performance relation: A meta-analysis regarding the impact of level of analysis, sample selection, measurement, and industry influences," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 48(1), pages 17-37.
    8. Luft, Joan & Shields, Michael D., 2003. "Mapping management accounting: graphics and guidelines for theory-consistent empirical research," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 28(2-3), pages 169-249.
    9. Hall, Matthew, 2008. "The effect of comprehensive performance measurement systems on role clarity, psychological empowerment and managerial performance," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 33(2-3), pages 141-163.
    10. Sebastian Goebel & Barbara E. Weißenberger, 2017. "Effects of management control mechanisms: towards a more comprehensive analysis," Journal of Business Economics, Springer, vol. 87(2), pages 185-219, February.
    11. Adam Maiga & Anders Nilsson & Fred Jacobs, 2014. "Assessing the impact of budgetary participation on budgetary outcomes: the role of information technology for enhanced communication and activity-based costing," Metrika: International Journal for Theoretical and Applied Statistics, Springer, vol. 25(1), pages 5-32, September.
    12. Klaus Derfuss, 2015. "Relating Context Variables to Participative Budgeting and Evaluative Use of Performance Measures: A Meta-analysis," Abacus, Accounting Foundation, University of Sydney, vol. 51(2), pages 238-278, June.
    13. Hall, Matthew, 2011. "Do comprehensive performance measurement systems help or hinder managers' mental model development?," LSE Research Online Documents on Economics 36703, London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Library.
    14. Erhart, Raphaela & Mahlendorf, Matthias D. & Reimer, Marko & Schäffer, Utz, 2017. "Theorizing and testing bidirectional effects: The relationship between strategy formation and involvement of controllers," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 61(C), pages 36-52.
    15. Artz, Martin & Homburg, Christian & Rajab, Thomas, 2012. "Performance-measurement system design and functional strategic decision influence: The role of performance-measure properties," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 37(7), pages 445-460.
    16. Howard M. Armitage & Dorian Lane & Alan Webb, 2020. "Budget Development and Use in Small‐ and Medium‐Sized Enterprises: A Field Investigation," Accounting Perspectives, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 19(3), pages 205-240, September.
    17. Van der Stede, Wim A. & Young, S. Mark & Chen, Clara Xiaoling, 2005. "Assessing the quality of evidence in empirical management accounting research: The case of survey studies," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 30(7-8), pages 655-684.
    18. Prabhu Sivabalan & Peter Booth & Teemu Malmi & David A. Brown, 2009. "An exploratory study of operational reasons to budget," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 49(4), pages 849-871, December.
    19. Arnold, Markus C. & Gillenkirch, Robert M., 2015. "Using negotiated budgets for planning and performance evaluation: An experimental study," Accounting, Organizations and Society, Elsevier, vol. 43(C), pages 1-16.
    20. Bhimani, Alnoor & Sivabalan, Prabhu & Soonawalla, Kazbi, 2018. "A study of the linkages between rolling budget forms, uncertainty and strategy," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 50(3), pages 306-323.

    More about this item

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:aosoci:v:40:y:2015:i:c:p:61-77. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/aos .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.