IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/taf/rcitxx/v24y2021i3p385-402.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Regaining international tourism attractiveness after an armed conflict: the role of security spending

Author

Listed:
  • Luke Emeka Okafor
  • Usman Khalid

Abstract

This paper investigates how long it takes a country to regain international tourism attractiveness after an armed conflict using gravity panel data. This includes examining the influence of security spending as proxied by military spending in the underlying negative relationship between international tourism and armed conflict. The results show that security spending cannot reverse the negative impact of armed conflict on international tourist flows in a destination country in a short period of time. Security spending, however, can reverse the negative impact of conflict after about eight years following the onset of the conflict as international tourist flows increase. Armed conflict is very costly and should be avoided by all means possible. In the event of an unavoidable conflict, effective utilization of security spending can help to restore peace after some time, which in turn would lead to an increase in international tourist flows.

Suggested Citation

  • Luke Emeka Okafor & Usman Khalid, 2021. "Regaining international tourism attractiveness after an armed conflict: the role of security spending," Current Issues in Tourism, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 24(3), pages 385-402, February.
    • Handle: RePEc:taf:rcitxx:v:24:y:2021:i:3:p:385-402
    DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2020.1734547
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10.1080/13683500.2020.1734547
    Download Restriction: Access to full text is restricted to subscribers.
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1080/13683500.2020.1734547?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Usman Khalid, 2017. "The effect of trade and political institutions on economic institutions," The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 26(1), pages 89-110, January.
    2. Salvador Gil‐Pareja & Rafael Llorca‐Vivero & José Antonio Martínez‐Serrano, 2007. "The Effect of EMU on Tourism," Review of International Economics, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 15(2), pages 302-312, May.
    3. Raza, Syed Ali & Jawaid, Syed Tehseen, 2013. "Terrorism and tourism: A conjunction and ramification in Pakistan," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 33(C), pages 65-70.
    4. Hajibaba, Homa & Boztuğ, Yasemin & Dolnicar, Sara, 2016. "Preventing tourists from canceling in times of crises," Annals of Tourism Research, Elsevier, vol. 60(C), pages 48-62.
    5. Mete Feridun & Muhammad Shahbaz, 2010. "Fighting Terrorism: Are Military Measures Effective? Empirical Evidence From Turkey," Defence and Peace Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 21(2), pages 193-205.
    6. Joshua Aizenman & Reuven Glick, 2006. "Military expenditure, threats, and growth," The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 15(2), pages 129-155.
    7. Morley, Clive & Rosselló, Jaume & Santana-Gallego, Maria, 2014. "Gravity models for tourism demand: theory and use," Annals of Tourism Research, Elsevier, vol. 48(C), pages 1-10.
    8. Cothren, Richard, 2002. "A Model of Military Spending and Economic Growth," Public Choice, Springer, vol. 110(1-2), pages 121-141, January.
    9. J.W. Buultjens & I. Ratnayake & W.K. Athula Chammika Gnanapala, 2016. "Post-Conflict tourism development in Sri Lanka: implications for building resilience," Current Issues in Tourism, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 19(4), pages 355-372, March.
    10. Benoit, Emile, 1978. "Growth and Defense in Developing Countries," Economic Development and Cultural Change, University of Chicago Press, vol. 26(2), pages 271-280, January.
    11. Nusrate Aziz & M. Niaz Asadullah, 2017. "Military spending, armed conflict and economic growth in developing countries in the post-Cold War era," Journal of Economic Studies, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 44(1), pages 47-68, January.
    12. J. Paul Dunne & Ron Smith & Dirk Willenbockel, 2005. "Models Of Military Expenditure And Growth: A Critical Review," Defence and Peace Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 16(6), pages 449-461.
    13. Liu, Anyu & Pratt, Stephen, 2017. "Tourism's vulnerability and resilience to terrorism," Tourism Management, Elsevier, vol. 60(C), pages 404-417.
    14. Muhammad Shafiullah & Luke Emeka Okafor & Usman Khalid, 2019. "Determinants of international tourism demand: Evidence from Australian states and territories," Tourism Economics, , vol. 25(2), pages 274-296, March.
    15. Aliza Fleischer & Steven Buccola, 2002. "War, terror, and the tourism market in Israel," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 34(11), pages 1335-1343.
    16. Bethuel Kinyanjui Kinuthia, 2017. "Export Spillovers: Comparative Evidence From Kenya and Malaysia," Journal of African Economies, Centre for the Study of African Economies, vol. 26(1), pages 24-51.
    17. Hajibaba, Homa & Gretzel, Ulrike & Leisch, Friedrich & Dolnicar, Sara, 2015. "Crisis-resistant tourists," Annals of Tourism Research, Elsevier, vol. 53(C), pages 46-60.
    18. Nusrate Aziz & Usman Khalid, 2019. "Armed Conflict, Military Expenses and FDI Inflow to Developing Countries," Defence and Peace Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 30(2), pages 238-251, February.
    19. Abdelmohsen A. Nassani & Khalid Zaman & Abdullah Mohammed Aldakhil & Muhammad Moinuddin Qazi Abro, 2017. "War economy and pleasure: assessing the effects of military expenditure on tourism growth," Quality & Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, Springer, vol. 51(4), pages 1733-1754, July.
    20. M. Thea Sinclair, 1998. "Tourism and economic development: A survey," Journal of Development Studies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 34(5), pages 1-51.
    21. Luke Emeka Okafor & Wing Leong Teo, 2019. "2018 WTO Trade Policy Review of Malaysia," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 42(12), pages 3447-3463, December.
    22. Narayan, Seema & Nguyen, Tri Tung, 2016. "Does the trade gravity model depend on trading partners? Some evidence from Vietnam and her 54 trading partners," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 41(C), pages 220-237.
    23. Dogru, Tarik & Sirakaya-Turk, Ercan & Crouch, Geoffrey I., 2017. "Remodeling international tourism demand: Old theory and new evidence," Tourism Management, Elsevier, vol. 60(C), pages 47-55.
    24. Kollias, Christos & Messis, Petros & Mylonidis, Nikolaos & Paleologou, Suzanna-Maria, 2009. "Terrorism and the effectiveness of security spending in Greece: Policy implications of some empirical findings," Journal of Policy Modeling, Elsevier, vol. 31(5), pages 788-802, September.
    25. Yair Eilat & Liran Einav, 2004. "Determinants of international tourism: a three-dimensional panel data analysis," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 36(12), pages 1315-1327.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Atosha Byemba & George Ariya & Prof. Ipara Hellen, 2024. "Impacts of Armed Conflicts on Tourism in Protected Areas and their Environment in Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo," International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), vol. 8(4), pages 2130-2139, April.
    2. Muhammad Shafiullah & Usman Khalid & Luke Emeka Okafor, 2023. "Do birds of a feather flock together? Analyzing environmental performance and tourist behavior using a gravity approach," Tourism Economics, , vol. 29(5), pages 1139-1163, August.
    3. Malgorzata Brojak-Trzaskowska & Karolina Drela, 2023. "Identification and Comparative Analysis of Selected Elements of Tourism Potential from a Regional Perspective," European Research Studies Journal, European Research Studies Journal, vol. 0(4), pages 482-491.
    4. Jaume Rosselló Nadal & María Santana Gallego, 2022. "Gravity models for tourism demand modeling: Empirical review and outlook," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 36(5), pages 1358-1409, December.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Usman Khalid & Luke Emeka Okafor & Nusrate Aziz, 2020. "Armed conflict, military expenditure and international tourism," Tourism Economics, , vol. 26(4), pages 555-577, June.
    2. Nusrate Aziz & Usman Khalid, 2019. "Armed Conflict, Military Expenses and FDI Inflow to Developing Countries," Defence and Peace Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 30(2), pages 238-251, February.
    3. Shreesh Chary, 2023. "The nexus between arms imports, military expenditures and economic growth of the top arms importers in the world: a pooled mean group approach," Journal of Economic Studies, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 51(4), pages 808-822, August.
    4. Nusrate Aziz & M. Niaz Asadullah, 2017. "Military spending, armed conflict and economic growth in developing countries in the post-Cold War era," Journal of Economic Studies, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 44(1), pages 47-68, January.
    5. Christos Kollias & Stephanos Papadamou, 2019. "Peace And Tourism: A Nexus? Evidence From Developed And Developing Countries," The Singapore Economic Review (SER), World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., vol. 64(02), pages 323-339, March.
    6. Federico Carril-Caccia & José María Martín Martín & Francisco Javier Sáez-Fernández, 2024. "How important are borders for tourism? The case of Europe," Tourism Economics, , vol. 30(1), pages 27-43, February.
    7. Recep Ulucak & Ali Gökhan Yücel & Salih Çağrı İlkay, 2020. "Dynamics of tourism demand in Turkey: Panel data analysis using gravity model," Tourism Economics, , vol. 26(8), pages 1394-1414, December.
    8. Muhammad Athar Nadeem & Zhiying Liu & Yi Xu & Kishwar Nawaz & Muhammad Yousaf Malik & Amna Younis, 2020. "Impacts of terrorism, governance structure, military expenditures and infrastructures upon tourism: empirical evidence from an emerging economy," Eurasian Business Review, Springer;Eurasia Business and Economics Society, vol. 10(1), pages 185-206, March.
    9. Albert J.F. Yang & William N. Trumbull & Chin Wei Yang & Bwo‐Nung Huang, 2011. "On The Relationship Between Military Expenditure, Threat, And Economic Growth: A Nonlinear Approach," Defence and Peace Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 22(4), pages 449-457, April.
    10. Oukhallou, Youssef, 2019. "Military Expenditure and Economic Development," MPRA Paper 98352, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    11. David Boto-García & José F Baños-Pino, 2023. "Deep habits and travel resilience after COVID-19," Tourism Economics, , vol. 29(2), pages 543-550, March.
    12. Jamil Shah & Zilakat Khan Malik & Umar Hayat, 2020. "The Dynamic Effects of Terrorism on Tourism: A Bound Testing Co-Integration Approach," IBT Journal of Business Studies (JBS), Ilma University, Faculty of Management Science, vol. 16(1), pages 44-57.
    13. McDonald Bruce D & Eger Robert J, 2010. "The Defense-Growth Relationship: An Economic Investigation into Post-Soviet States," Peace Economics, Peace Science, and Public Policy, De Gruyter, vol. 16(1), pages 1-28, September.
    14. Jong, Meng-Chang & Hong, Puah & Arip, Mohammad Affendy, 2020. "Modelling Tourism Demand: An Augmented Gravity Model," Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia, Faculty of Economics and Business, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, vol. 54(2), pages 105-112.
    15. Alptekin, Aynur & Levine, Paul, 2012. "Military expenditure and economic growth: A meta-analysis," European Journal of Political Economy, Elsevier, vol. 28(4), pages 636-650.
    16. Sefa Awaworyi Churchill & Siew Ling Yew, 2018. "The effect of military expenditure on growth: an empirical synthesis," Empirical Economics, Springer, vol. 55(3), pages 1357-1387, November.
    17. Po‐Sheng Lin & Cheng‐Te Lee, 2012. "Military Spending, Threats And Stochastic Growth," Bulletin of Economic Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 64(1), pages 8-19, January.
    18. José L Torres, 2020. "The production of national defense and the macroeconomy," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 15(10), pages 1-18, October.
    19. Mie Augier & Robert McNab & Jerry Guo & Phillip Karber, 2017. "Defense spending and economic growth: evidence from China, 1952–2012," Defence and Peace Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 28(1), pages 65-90, January.
    20. Jhy-Yuan Shieh & Wen-Ya Chang & Ching-Chong Lai, 2007. "An Endogenous Growth Model Of Capital And Arms Accumulation," Defence and Peace Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 18(6), pages 557-575.

    More about this item

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:taf:rcitxx:v:24:y:2021:i:3:p:385-402. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Chris Longhurst (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.tandfonline.com/rcit .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.