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Life cycle comparison of industrial-scale lithium-ion battery recycling and mining supply chains

Author

Listed:
  • Michael L. Machala

    (Stanford University
    Stanford University)

  • Xi Chen

    (Stanford University
    City University of Hong Kong)

  • Samantha P. Bunke

    (Stanford University)

  • Gregory Forbes

    (Stanford University)

  • Akarys Yegizbay

    (Kenyon College)

  • Jacques A. Chalendar

    (Stanford University)

  • Inês L. Azevedo

    (Stanford University
    Stanford University)

  • Sally Benson

    (Stanford University
    Stanford University)

  • William A. Tarpeh

    (Stanford University
    Stanford University)

Abstract

Recycling lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) can supplement critical materials and improve the environmental sustainability of LIB supply chains. In this work, environmental impacts (greenhouse gas emissions, water consumption, energy consumption) of industrial-scale production of battery-grade cathode materials from end-of-life LIBs are compared to those of conventional mining supply chains. Converting mixed-stream LIBs into battery-grade materials reduces environmental impacts by at least 58%. Recycling batteries to mixed metal products instead of discrete salts further reduces environmental impacts. Electricity consumption is identified as the principal contributor to all LIB recycling environmental impacts, and different electricity sources can change greenhouse gas emissions up to five times. Supply chain steps that precede refinement (material extraction and transport) contribute marginally to the environmental impacts of circular LIB supply chains (

Suggested Citation

  • Michael L. Machala & Xi Chen & Samantha P. Bunke & Gregory Forbes & Akarys Yegizbay & Jacques A. Chalendar & Inês L. Azevedo & Sally Benson & William A. Tarpeh, 2025. "Life cycle comparison of industrial-scale lithium-ion battery recycling and mining supply chains," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 16(1), pages 1-14, December.
    • Handle: RePEc:nat:natcom:v:16:y:2025:i:1:d:10.1038_s41467-025-56063-x
    DOI: 10.1038/s41467-025-56063-x
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Gavin Harper & Roberto Sommerville & Emma Kendrick & Laura Driscoll & Peter Slater & Rustam Stolkin & Allan Walton & Paul Christensen & Oliver Heidrich & Simon Lambert & Andrew Abbott & Karl Ryder & L, 2019. "Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles," Nature, Nature, vol. 575(7781), pages 75-86, November.
    2. Gretchen C. Daily & Mary Ruckelshaus, 2022. "25 years of valuing ecosystems in decision-making," Nature, Nature, vol. 606(7914), pages 465-466, June.
    3. Rebecca E. Ciez & J. F. Whitacre, 2019. "Examining different recycling processes for lithium-ion batteries," Nature Sustainability, Nature, vol. 2(2), pages 148-156, February.
    4. Liu, Boyu & Zhang, Qi & Liu, Jiangfeng & Hao, Yawei & Tang, Yanyan & Li, Yaoming, 2022. "The impacts of critical metal shortage on China's electric vehicle industry development and countermeasure policies," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 248(C).
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    Cited by:

    1. Dan Su & Yu Mei & Tongchao Liu & Khalil Amine, 2025. "Global Regulations for Sustainable Battery Recycling: Challenges and Opportunities," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(7), pages 1-30, March.
    2. Oluwatosin S. Atitebi & Kalpana Dumre & Erick C. Jones, 2025. "Supporting a Lithium Circular Economy via Reverse Logistics: Improving the Preprocessing Stage of the Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Supply Chain," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(3), pages 1-19, January.

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