Robust Spatiotemporal Estimation of PM Concentrations Using Boosting-Based Ensemble Models

Particulate matter (PM) as an air pollutant is harmful to the human body as well as to the ecosystem. It is crucial to understand the spatiotemporal PM distribution in order to effectively implement reduction methods. However, ground-based air quality monitoring sites are limited in providing reliable concentration values owing to their patchy distribution. Here, we aimed to predict daily PM 10 concentrations using boosting algorithms such as gradient boosting machine (GBM), extreme gradient boost (XGB), and light gradient boosting machine (LightGBM). The three models performed well in estimating the spatial contrasts and temporal variability in daily PM 10 concentrations. In particular, the LightGBM model outperformed the GBM and XGM models, with an adjusted R 2 of 0.84, a root mean squared error of 12.108 μg/m 2 , a mean absolute error of 8.543 μg/m 2 , and a mean absolute percentage error of 16%. Despite having high performance, the LightGBM model showed low spatial prediction accuracy near the southwest part of the study area. Additionally, temporal differences were found between the observed and predicted values at high concentrations. These outcomes indicate that such methods can provide intuitive and reliable PM 10 concentration values for the management, prevention, and mitigation of air pollution. In the future, performance accuracy could be improved through consideration of different variables related to spatial and seasonal characteristics.