IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jjrfmx/v16y2023i4p218-d1112406.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Impact of Proof of Work (PoW)-Based Blockchain Applications on the Environment: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda

Author

Listed:
  • Nishant Sapra

    (Department of Accounting and Finance, Management Development Institute Gurgaon, Mehrauli Road, Sukhrali, Gurgaon 122007, Haryana, India)

  • Imlak Shaikh

    (Department of Accounting and Finance, Management Development Institute Gurgaon, Mehrauli Road, Sukhrali, Gurgaon 122007, Haryana, India)

  • Ashutosh Dash

    (Department of Accounting and Finance, Management Development Institute Gurgaon, Mehrauli Road, Sukhrali, Gurgaon 122007, Haryana, India)

Abstract

Blockchain technology is being looked at to solve numerous real-world problems that demand transparency by meeting sustainable goals. Do we ponder whether this technology is a boon or a bane for the environment? This paper analyses blockchain’s dominant consensus method, Proof-of-Work (PoW), which consumes more energy than Malaysia and Sweden and further deteriorates the environment through carbon emissions. This study is the first systematic evaluation of PoW consensus-based blockchain applications’ environmental consequences. We found 11 significant Theories, 6 Contexts, and 26 Methodologies (TCM) in 60 reviewed articles. We propose an Antecedents, Drivers, and Outcomes (ADO) model, which depicts that marginal profits drive high energy consumption and carbon emissions, with non-renewable energy proportionally responsible for carbon emissions. The article distinctively uses an integrated TCM-ADO framework for literature synthesis and the PESTLE framework for reporting future research areas. This is the first study to use the following four frameworks: PRISMA; TCM; ADO; and PESTLE for systematic literature review. Profit is identified as one of the most significant drivers of energy consumption and further carbon emissions. The article proposes 65 future research areas and makes theoretical contributions to the literature that may interest academicians, practitioners, and social stakeholders.

Suggested Citation

  • Nishant Sapra & Imlak Shaikh & Ashutosh Dash, 2023. "Impact of Proof of Work (PoW)-Based Blockchain Applications on the Environment: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda," JRFM, MDPI, vol. 16(4), pages 1-29, March.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jjrfmx:v:16:y:2023:i:4:p:218-:d:1112406
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1911-8074/16/4/218/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1911-8074/16/4/218/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Michal Brzezinski, 2015. "Power laws in citation distributions: evidence from Scopus," Scientometrics, Springer;Akadémiai Kiadó, vol. 103(1), pages 213-228, April.
    2. Justin Paul & Gabriel R. G. Benito, 2018. "A review of research on outward foreign direct investment from emerging countries, including China: what do we know, how do we know and where should we be heading?," Asia Pacific Business Review, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 24(1), pages 90-115, January.
    3. Lin William Cong & Zhiguo He & Jiasun Li & Wei Jiang, 2021. "Decentralized Mining in Centralized Pools [Concentrating on the fall of the labor share]," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 34(3), pages 1191-1235.
    4. Peter Howson, 2019. "Tackling climate change with blockchain," Nature Climate Change, Nature, vol. 9(9), pages 644-645, September.
    5. Corbet, Shaen & Lucey, Brian & Yarovaya, Larisa, 2021. "Bitcoin-energy markets interrelationships - New evidence," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 70(C).
    6. Shangrong Jiang & Yuze Li & Quanying Lu & Yongmiao Hong & Dabo Guan & Yu Xiong & Shouyang Wang, 2021. "Policy assessments for the carbon emission flows and sustainability of Bitcoin blockchain operation in China," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 12(1), pages 1-10, December.
    7. Aiya Li & Xianhua Wei & Zhou He, 2020. "Robust Proof of Stake: A New Consensus Protocol for Sustainable Blockchain Systems," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 12(7), pages 1-15, April.
    8. Michael Wang & Bill Wang & Ahmad Abareshi, 2020. "Blockchain Technology and Its Role in Enhancing Supply Chain Integration Capability and Reducing Carbon Emission: A Conceptual Framework," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 12(24), pages 1-17, December.
    9. Sijie Chen & Hanning Mi & Jian Ping & Zheng Yan & Zeyu Shen & Xuezhi Liu & Ning Zhang & Qing Xia & Chongqing Kang, 2022. "A blockchain consensus mechanism that uses Proof of Solution to optimize energy dispatch and trading," Nature Energy, Nature, vol. 7(6), pages 495-502, June.
    10. Dowling, Michael, 2022. "Is non-fungible token pricing driven by cryptocurrencies?," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 44(C).
    11. Luisanna Cocco & Roberto Tonelli & Michele Marchesi, 2019. "An Agent Based Model to Analyze the Bitcoin Mining Activity and a Comparison with the Gold Mining Industry," Future Internet, MDPI, vol. 11(1), pages 1-12, January.
    12. Sarkodie, Samuel Asumadu & Ahmed, Maruf Yakubu & Leirvik, Thomas, 2022. "Trade volume affects bitcoin energy consumption and carbon footprint," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 48(C).
    13. Easley, David & O'Hara, Maureen & Basu, Soumya, 2019. "From mining to markets: The evolution of bitcoin transaction fees," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 134(1), pages 91-109.
    14. Zhang, Dongna & Chen, Xihui Haviour & Lau, Chi Keung Marco & Xu, Bing, 2023. "Implications of cryptocurrency energy usage on climate change," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 187(C).
    15. Jona Derks & Jaap Gordijn & Arjen Siegmann, 2018. "From chaining blocks to breaking even: A study on the profitability of bitcoin mining from 2012 to 2016," Electronic Markets, Springer;IIM University of St. Gallen, vol. 28(3), pages 321-338, August.
    16. Sebastian Flegr & Sascha L. Schmidt, 2022. "Strategic management in eSports – a systematic review of the literature," Sport Management Review, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 25(4), pages 631-655, August.
    17. Jennifer Vazquez & Donald Larry Crumbley, 2022. "Flared Gas Can Reduce Some Risks in Crypto Mining as Well as Oil and Gas Operations," Risks, MDPI, vol. 10(6), pages 1-12, June.
    18. Seongjoon Park & Hwangnam Kim, 2019. "DAG-Based Distributed Ledger for Low-Latency Smart Grid Network," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(18), pages 1-22, September.
    19. Mikhail Bondarev, 2020. "Energy Consumption of Bitcoin Mining," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 10(4), pages 525-529.
    20. Max J. Krause & Thabet Tolaymat, 2018. "Author Correction: Quantification of energy and carbon costs for mining cryptocurrencies," Nature Sustainability, Nature, vol. 1(12), pages 814-814, December.
    21. Li, Fangyi & Cao, Xin & Ou, Rui, 2021. "A network-based evolutionary analysis of the diffusion of cleaner energy substitution in enterprises: The roles of PEST factors," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 156(C).
    22. Camilo Mora & Randi L. Rollins & Katie Taladay & Michael B. Kantar & Mason K. Chock & Mio Shimada & Erik C. Franklin, 2018. "Bitcoin emissions alone could push global warming above 2°C," Nature Climate Change, Nature, vol. 8(11), pages 931-933, November.
    23. Sean Foley & Jonathan R Karlsen & Tālis J Putniņš, 2019. "Sex, Drugs, and Bitcoin: How Much Illegal Activity Is Financed through Cryptocurrencies?," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 32(5), pages 1798-1853.
    24. Max J. Krause & Thabet Tolaymat, 2018. "Quantification of energy and carbon costs for mining cryptocurrencies," Nature Sustainability, Nature, vol. 1(11), pages 711-718, November.
    25. Lim, Weng Marc & Yap, Sheau-Fen & Makkar, Marian, 2021. "Home sharing in marketing and tourism at a tipping point: What do we know, how do we know, and where should we be heading?," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 122(C), pages 534-566.
    26. Milunovich, George, 2022. "Assessing the connectedness between Proof of Work and Proof of Stake/Other digital coins," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 211(C).
    27. Li, Jingming & Li, Nianping & Peng, Jinqing & Cui, Haijiao & Wu, Zhibin, 2019. "Energy consumption of cryptocurrency mining: A study of electricity consumption in mining cryptocurrencies," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 168(C), pages 160-168.
    28. Corbet, Shaen & Cumming, Douglas J. & Lucey, Brian M. & Peat, Maurice & Vigne, Samuel A., 2020. "The destabilising effects of cryptocurrency cybercriminality," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 191(C).
    29. Artur Meynkhard, 2019. "Energy Efficient Development Model for Regions of the Russian Federation: Evidence of Crypto Mining," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 9(4), pages 16-21.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Casey Watters, 2023. "Digital Gold or Digital Security? Unravelling the Legal Fabric of Decentralised Digital Assets," Commodities, MDPI, vol. 2(4), pages 1-12, October.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Anh Ngoc Quang Huynh & Duy Duong & Tobias Burggraf & Hien Thi Thu Luong & Nam Huu Bui, 2022. "Energy Consumption and Bitcoin Market," Asia-Pacific Financial Markets, Springer;Japanese Association of Financial Economics and Engineering, vol. 29(1), pages 79-93, March.
    2. Mingbo Zheng & Gen-Fu Feng & Xinxin Zhao & Chun-Ping Chang, 2023. "The transaction behavior of cryptocurrency and electricity consumption," Financial Innovation, Springer;Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, vol. 9(1), pages 1-18, December.
    3. Sharif, Arshian & Brahim, Mariem & Dogan, Eyup & Tzeremes, Panayiotis, 2023. "Analysis of the spillover effects between green economy, clean and dirty cryptocurrencies," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 120(C).
    4. Ye, Wang & Wong, Wing-Keung & Arnone, Gioia & Nassani, Abdelmohsen A. & Haffar, Mohamed & Faiz, Muhammad Fauzinudin, 2023. "Crypto currency and green investment impact on global environment: A time series analysis," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 86(C), pages 155-169.
    5. Zhang, Dongna & Chen, Xihui Haviour & Lau, Chi Keung Marco & Xu, Bing, 2023. "Implications of cryptocurrency energy usage on climate change," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 187(C).
    6. Díaz, Antonio & Esparcia, Carlos & Huélamo, Diego, 2023. "Unveiling the diversification capabilities of carbon markets in NFT portfolios," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 58(PD).
    7. Sergio Luis Náñez Alonso & Javier Jorge-Vázquez & Miguel Ángel Echarte Fernández & Ricardo Francisco Reier Forradellas, 2021. "Cryptocurrency Mining from an Economic and Environmental Perspective. Analysis of the Most and Least Sustainable Countries," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(14), pages 1-22, July.
    8. Sarker, Provash Kumer & Lau, Chi Keung Marco & Pradhan, Ashis Kumar, 2023. "Asymmetric effects of climate policy uncertainty and energy prices on bitcoin prices," Innovation and Green Development, Elsevier, vol. 2(2).
    9. Abakah, Emmanuel Joel Aikins & Wali Ullah, GM & Adekoya, Oluwasegun B. & Osei Bonsu, Christiana & Abdullah, Mohammad, 2023. "Blockchain market and eco-friendly financial assets: Dynamic price correlation, connectedness and spillovers with portfolio implications," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 87(C), pages 218-243.
    10. Baur, Dirk G. & Oll, Josua, 2022. "Bitcoin investments and climate change: A financial and carbon intensity perspective," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 47(PA).
    11. Li, Xiao & Wu, Ruoxi & Wang, Chen, 2024. "Impacts of bitcoin on monetary system: Is China's bitcoin ban necessary?," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 69(C).
    12. Lei, Nuoa & Masanet, Eric & Koomey, Jonathan, 2021. "Best practices for analyzing the direct energy use of blockchain technology systems: Review and policy recommendations," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 156(C).
    13. Corbet, Shaen & Lucey, Brian & Yarovaya, Larisa, 2021. "Bitcoin-energy markets interrelationships - New evidence," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 70(C).
    14. Agur, Itai & Lavayssière, Xavier & Villegas Bauer, Germán & Deodoro, Jose & Martinez Peria, Soledad & Sandri, Damiano & Tourpe, Hervé, 2023. "Lessons from crypto assets for the design of energy efficient digital currencies," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 212(C).
    15. Pham, Linh & Huynh, Toan Luu Duc & Hanif, Waqas, 2023. "Time-varying asymmetric spillovers among cryptocurrency, green and fossil-fuel investments," Global Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 58(C).
    16. Michael L. Polemis & Mike G. Tsionas, 2023. "The environmental consequences of blockchain technology: A Bayesian quantile cointegration analysis for Bitcoin," International Journal of Finance & Economics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 28(2), pages 1602-1621, April.
    17. Wenpin Tang, 2022. "Stability of shares in the Proof of Stake Protocol -- Concentration and Phase Transitions," Papers 2206.02227, arXiv.org.
    18. Le, Thanh Ha, 2023. "Quantile time-frequency connectedness between cryptocurrency volatility and renewable energy volatility during the COVID-19 pandemic and Ukraine-Russia conflicts," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 202(C), pages 613-625.
    19. Shize Qin & Lena Klaa{ss}en & Ulrich Gallersdorfer & Christian Stoll & Da Zhang, 2020. "Bitcoin's future carbon footprint," Papers 2011.02612, arXiv.org, revised Jan 2021.
    20. Abakah, Emmanuel Joel Aikins & Hossain, Sahib & Abdullah, Mohammad & Goodell, John W., 2024. "Global uncertainty factors and price connectedness between US electricity and blockchain markets: Findings from an R-square connectedness approach," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 59(C).

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jjrfmx:v:16:y:2023:i:4:p:218-:d:1112406. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.