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Zip codes and spatial analysis: Problems and prospects

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  • Grubesic, Tony H.

Abstract

The use of zip codes for spatial, demographic, and socio-economic analysis is growing. As of August 2005, 193 articles were indexed by "zip code" in the Social Sciences Citation Index, while 386 were indexed in PubMed. All of these articles were published since 1989. While the treatment of zip codes as units of analysis varies widely in epidemiology, marketing, geography, and the socio-economic planning sciences, there are a number of common "errors" that could be avoided if analysts retained a better understanding of zip code characteristics. The purpose of this paper is to outline the problems and prospects of utilizing zip codes for spatial analysis. Issues associated with spatial contiguity, data aggregation, and boundary definitions are addressed. Results suggest that, although zip codes are not the most robust spatial units of analysis available, they retain a modest degree of utility for specialized applications. Recommendations for future research regarding zip codes and their use in socio-economic applications are offered.

Suggested Citation

  • Grubesic, Tony H., 2008. "Zip codes and spatial analysis: Problems and prospects," Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, Elsevier, vol. 42(2), pages 129-149, June.
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:soceps:v:42:y:2008:i:2:p:129-149
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    1. Tony H Grubesic & Mark W Horner, 2006. "Deconstructing the Divide: Extending Broadband xDSL Services to the Periphery," Environment and Planning B, , vol. 33(5), pages 685-704, October.
    2. Krieger, N. & Waterman, P. & Chen, J.T. & Soobader, M.-J. & Subramanian, S.V. & Carson, R., 2002. "Zip code caveat: Bias due to spatiotemporal mismatches between zip codes and US census-defined geographic areas - The public health disparities geocoding project," American Journal of Public Health, American Public Health Association, vol. 92(7), pages 1100-1102.
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    2. Mack, Elizabeth A. & Grubesic, Tony H., 2009. "Forecasting broadband provision," Information Economics and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 21(4), pages 297-311, November.
    3. Schweikert, Jochen & Höchstötter, Markus, 2018. "Epidemiological spreading of mortgage default," Working Paper Series in Economics 112, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Department of Economics and Management.
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    6. Yaqian Zhu & Thomas P. McKeon & Vicky Tam & Anil Vachani & Trevor M. Penning & Wei-Ting Hwang, 2020. "Geographic Differences in Lung Cancer Incidence: A Study of a Major Metropolitan Area within Southeastern Pennsylvania," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(24), pages 1-14, December.
    7. Tobias Scholl & Antonios Garas & Frank Schweitzer, 2015. "The spatial component of R&D networks," Papers 1509.08291, arXiv.org.
    8. Laura Grigolon & Laura Lasio, 2023. "Biased Beliefs and Stigma as Barriers to Treatment and Innovation Adoption," CRC TR 224 Discussion Paper Series crctr224_2023_277v2, University of Bonn and University of Mannheim, Germany.
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    10. Hui Peng & Yifan Wang & Yisha Hu & Hong Shen, 2020. "Agglomeration Production, Industry Association and Carbon Emission Performance: Based on Spatial Analysis," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 12(18), pages 1-18, September.
    11. Shengkun Xie & Chong Gan, 2023. "Estimating Territory Risk Relativity Using Generalized Linear Mixed Models and Fuzzy C -Means Clustering," Risks, MDPI, vol. 11(6), pages 1-20, May.
    12. Benjamin T. Skinner, 2019. "Choosing College in the 2000s: An Updated Analysis Using the Conditional Logistic Choice Model," Research in Higher Education, Springer;Association for Institutional Research, vol. 60(2), pages 153-183, March.
    13. Hoggard, Lori S. & Volpe, Vanessa V. & Hatton, Vanessa L. & Jones, Steven J. & Tikhonov, Aleksandr A. & Davis, Sarah E., 2023. "“Now I just need something sweet”: Racism, emotional eating, and health among African Americans," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 316(C).
    14. Mack, Elizabeth A. & Rey, Sergio J., 2014. "An econometric approach for evaluating the linkages between broadband and knowledge intensive firms," Telecommunications Policy, Elsevier, vol. 38(1), pages 105-118.
    15. Nathaniel R. Geyer & Eugene J. Lengerich, 2023. "LionVu: A Data-Driven Geographical Web-GIS Tool for Community Health and Decision-Making in a Catchment Area," Geographies, MDPI, vol. 3(2), pages 1-17, April.
    16. Allison C. Morgan & Nicholas LaBerge & Daniel B. Larremore & Mirta Galesic & Jennie E. Brand & Aaron Clauset, 2022. "Socioeconomic roots of academic faculty," Nature Human Behaviour, Nature, vol. 6(12), pages 1625-1633, December.
    17. Elizabeth A. Mack & Luc Anselin & Tony H. Grubesic, 2011. "The importance of broadband provision to knowledge intensive firm location," Regional Science Policy & Practice, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 3(1), pages 17-35, March.
    18. Tobias Scholl & Antonios Garas & Frank Schweitzer, 2018. "The spatial component of R&D networks," Journal of Evolutionary Economics, Springer, vol. 28(2), pages 417-436, April.
    19. Elizabeth A. Mack, 2014. "Broadband and knowledge intensive firm clusters: Essential link or auxiliary connection?," Papers in Regional Science, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 93(1), pages 3-29, March.
    20. Jennifer Mapes, 2024. "Using big data to study small places: Small‐town voting patterns in the 2020 U.S. presidential election," Growth and Change, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 55(3), September.
    21. Joseph G L Lee & Thomas Wimark & Kasim S Ortiz & Kerry B Sewell, 2018. "Health-related regional and neighborhood correlates of sexual minority concentration: A systematic review," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 13(6), pages 1-17, June.
    22. Connolly Michelle & Prieger James E., 2013. "A Basic Analysis of Entry and Exit in the US Broadband Market, 2005–2008," Review of Network Economics, De Gruyter, vol. 12(3), pages 229-270, September.

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