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Life cycle inventory analysis of the production of metals used in photovoltaics

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  • Fthenakis, Vasilis
  • Wang, Wenming
  • Kim, Hyung Chul

Abstract

Material flows and emissions in all the stages of production of zinc, copper, aluminum, cadmium, indium, germanium, gallium, selenium, tellurium, and molybdenum were investigated. These metals are used selectively in the manufacture of solar cells, and emission and energy factors in their production are used in the life cycle analysis (LCA) of photovoltaics. Significant changes have occurred in the production and associated emissions for these metals over the last 10 years, which are not described in the LCA databases. Furthermore, emission and energy factors for several of the by-products of the base metal production were lacking. This review article aims in updating the life cycle inventories associated with the production of the base metals (Zn, Cu), and defining the production paths and emission and energy allocations for the minor metals (Cd, Ge, In, Mo, Se, and Te) used in photovoltaics.

Suggested Citation

  • Fthenakis, Vasilis & Wang, Wenming & Kim, Hyung Chul, 2009. "Life cycle inventory analysis of the production of metals used in photovoltaics," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 13(3), pages 493-517, April.
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:rensus:v:13:y:2009:i:3:p:493-517
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Alvarado, S & Maldonado, P & Barrios, A & Jaques, I, 2002. "Long term energy-related environmental issues of copper production," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 27(2), pages 183-196.
    2. Alvarado, Sergio & Maldonado, Pedro & Jaques, Iván, 1999. "Energy and environmental implications of copper production," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 24(4), pages 307-316.
    3. Fthenakis, Vasilis M., 2004. "Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe PV production," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 8(4), pages 303-334, August.
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    5. Fthenakis, Vasilis & Athias, Clement & Blumenthal, Alyssa & Kulur, Aylin & Magliozzo, Julia & Ng, David, 2020. "Sustainability evaluation of CdTe PV: An update," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 123(C).
    6. Ravikumar, Dwarakanath & Malghan, Deepak, 2013. "Material constraints for indigenous production of CdTe PV: Evidence from a Monte Carlo experiment using India's National Solar Mission Benchmarks," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 25(C), pages 393-403.
    7. Aman, M.M. & Solangi, K.H. & Hossain, M.S. & Badarudin, A. & Jasmon, G.B. & Mokhlis, H. & Bakar, A.H.A. & Kazi, S.N, 2015. "A review of Safety, Health and Environmental (SHE) issues of solar energy system," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 41(C), pages 1190-1204.
    8. Mudd, Gavin M., 2010. "The Environmental sustainability of mining in Australia: key mega-trends and looming constraints," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 35(2), pages 98-115, June.
    9. Tammaro, Marco & Rimauro, Juri & Fiandra, Valeria & Salluzzo, Antonio, 2015. "Thermal treatment of waste photovoltaic module for recovery and recycling: Experimental assessment of the presence of metals in the gas emissions and in the ashes," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 81(C), pages 103-112.
    10. Nugent, Daniel & Sovacool, Benjamin K., 2014. "Assessing the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions from solar PV and wind energy: A critical meta-survey," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 65(C), pages 229-244.
    11. Steinbuks, Jevgenijs & Satija, Gaurav & Zhao, Fu, 2015. "Sustainability of solar electricity : the role of endogenous resource substitution and market mediated responses," Policy Research Working Paper Series 7178, The World Bank.
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    13. Henning Wigger & Till Zimmermann & Christian Pade, 2015. "Broadening our view on nanomaterials: highlighting potentials to contribute to a sustainable materials management in preliminary assessments," Environment Systems and Decisions, Springer, vol. 35(1), pages 110-128, March.
    14. Kavlak, Goksin & Graedel, T.E., 2013. "Global anthropogenic tellurium cycles for 1940–2010," Resources, Conservation & Recycling, Elsevier, vol. 76(C), pages 21-26.
    15. Steinbuks, Jevgenijs & Satija, Gaurav & Zhao, Fu, 2017. "Sustainability of solar electricity: The role of endogenous resource substitution and cross-sectoral responses," Resource and Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 49(C), pages 218-232.
    16. McNulty, Brian A. & Jowitt, Simon M., 2022. "Byproduct critical metal supply and demand and implications for the energy transition: A case study of tellurium supply and CdTe PV demand," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 168(C).

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