Exploring mechanisms to pay for ecosystem services provided by mussels, oysters and seaweeds

This explorative study identifies and evaluates mechanisms for payment for ecosystem services provided by mussel, oyster and seaweed aquaculture. Concerns about the economic profitability of farming mussels, oysters and seaweeds hamper upscaling of production. It is argued that valuing and capitalizing the ecosystem services provided by the production of these lower trophic species can benefit the business case. The Delphi method is used to consult experts across the world in various sectors, including industry, NGO, science and government. Six payment mechanisms for ecosystem services were considered feasible; tax-payer funded payments, tradeable credits, encouraging subsidies, social licenses to produce, production cost-sharing schemes and increased utility for consumers. The latter was deemed most feasible, with little differences in feasibility found in the other five. There are however barriers to implementation in a lack of solid quantification, inadequate regulatory framework and lack of independent validation. Future payment mechanisms for ecosystem services provided by mussels, oysters and seaweeds need solid, science-based measurements based on sound monitoring indicators to quantify effects on the ecosystem services, liaised with relevant existing carbon and nitrogen credit trading schemes and an independent checks-and-balances for long-term trust in such payment schemes. The need for better mechanisms for capitalization justify further development of better data and knowledge of these mechanisms, inclusion of ecosystem services in new regulations and more political and societal support to implement them.