So rich, so poor. Household income and consumption in urban Spain in the early twentieth century (Zaragoza, 1924)

So far, studies on household income and consumption in Southern Europe have primarily focused on rural areas and factory workers. In this study, we aim to incorporate evidence of household income, considering the earnings of all household members and not just the male wage, using the population list of Zaragoza (Spain) from 1924. This population list is the first to systematically record the wages of all citizens regardless of their family role or age. Our results confirm that in 1924, most working-class households still required the labor of women and/or children to meet basic consumption needs (on average, they contributed nearly 60% of the household income). The findings also indicate that, despite a high percentage of agricultural workers (around 35% of households), agricultural day laborers were poorly paid compared to those in the industry. The seasonal nature of agricultural work likely made it even less attractive. Nevertheless, industrial wages were 18% higher than those of day laborers, and about 20% of unskilled workers were employed in industry. The relatively small size of the industrial sector and its modest wages may explain why Zaragoza was not yet a major attraction for immigrants from other regions, as it would become in the second half of the twentieth century. Employment in commerce, the military (with its associated risks), or professional occupations was associated with higher incomes, along with the ownership of production means or land.