IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/p/wiw/wiwsre/sre-disc-2009_07.html
   My bibliography  Save this paper

Real Estate Market Efficiency: A Survey of Literature

Author

Listed:
  • Gunther Maier
  • Shanaka Herath

Abstract

In this paper, we discuss the question whether or not the real estate market is efficient. We define market efficiency and the efficient market hypothesis as it had been developed in the literature on financial markets. Then, we discuss the empirical evidence that exists concerning the efficiency or inefficiency of financial markets, usually seen as the reference markets as far as market efficiency is concerned. In a separate section, we turn to the real estate market. There, we define the real estate market and discuss various aspects that are decisive for the efficiency of that market. As it turns out, the result found in the literature is inconclusive. Majority of studies provide evidence supporting inefficiency of the real estate market while several studies maintain the notion of real estate market efficiency.

Suggested Citation

  • Gunther Maier & Shanaka Herath, 2009. "Real Estate Market Efficiency: A Survey of Literature," SRE-Disc sre-disc-2009_07, Institute for Multilevel Governance and Development, Department of Socioeconomics, Vienna University of Economics and Business.
  • Handle: RePEc:wiw:wiwsre:sre-disc-2009_07
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www-sre.wu.ac.at/sre-disc/sre-disc-2009_07.pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    Other versions of this item:

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. William Rayburn & Michael Devaney & Richard Evans, 1987. "A Test of Weak‐Form Efficiency in Residential Real Estate Returns," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 15(3), pages 220-233, September.
    2. De Long, J Bradford, et al, 1990. "Positive Feedback Investment Strategies and Destabilizing Rational Speculation," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 45(2), pages 379-395, June.
    3. Linneman, Peter, 1986. "An empirical test of the efficiency of the housing market," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 20(2), pages 140-154, September.
    4. Kummerow, Max & Chan Lun, Joëlle, 0. "Information and communication technology in the real estate industry: productivity, industry structure and market efficiency," Telecommunications Policy, Elsevier, vol. 29(2-3), pages 173-190, March.
    5. William C. Wheaton, 1987. "The Cyclic Behavior of the National Office Market," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 15(4), pages 281-299, December.
    6. Takatoshi Ito & Keiko Nosse Hirono, 1993. "Efficiency of the Tokyo Housing Market," Monetary and Economic Studies, Institute for Monetary and Economic Studies, Bank of Japan, vol. 11(1), pages 1-32, July.
    7. Waldo L. Born & Stephen A. Pyhrr, 1994. "Real Estate Valuation: The Effect of Market and Property Cycles," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 9(4), pages 455-486.
    8. Charles J. Delaney & Marc T. Smith, 1989. "Impact Fees and the Price of New Housing: An Empirical Study," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 17(1), pages 41-54, March.
    9. Gau, George W, 1984. "Weak Form Tests of the Efficiency of Real Estate Investment Markets," The Financial Review, Eastern Finance Association, vol. 19(4), pages 301-320, November.
    10. James M. Poterba, 1991. "House Price Dynamics: The Role of Tax Policy," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 22(2), pages 143-204.
    11. DiPasquale Denise & Wheaton William C., 1994. "Housing Market Dynamics and the Future of Housing Prices," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 35(1), pages 1-27, January.
    12. Grossman, Sanford J & Stiglitz, Joseph E, 1980. "On the Impossibility of Informationally Efficient Markets," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 70(3), pages 393-408, June.
    13. Clapp, John M. & Tirtiroglu, Dogan, 1994. "Positive feedback trading and diffusion of asset price changes: Evidence from housing transactions," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 24(3), pages 337-355, August.
    14. Karl E. Case, 2000. "Real Estate and Macroeconomy," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 31(2), pages 119-162.
    15. Clapp John M. & Giaccotto Carmelo, 1994. "The Influence of Economic Variables on Local House Price Dynamics," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 36(2), pages 161-183, September.
    16. Leslie Rosenthal, 2006. "Efficiency and Seasonality in the UK Housing Market, 1991–2001," Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Department of Economics, University of Oxford, vol. 68(3), pages 289-317, June.
    17. Cutler, David M & Poterba, James M & Summers, Lawrence H, 1990. "Speculative Dynamics and the Role of Feedback Traders," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 80(2), pages 63-68, May.
    18. Meredith Beechey & David Gruen & James Vickery, 2000. "The Efficient Market Hypothesis: A Survey," RBA Research Discussion Papers rdp2000-01, Reserve Bank of Australia.
    19. Guntermann, Karl L & Norrbin, Stefan C, 1991. "Empirical Tests of Real Estate Market Efficiency," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 4(3), pages 297-313, September.
    20. Charles Leung & Youngman Leong & Siu Wong, 2006. "Housing Price Dispersion: An Empirical Investigation," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 32(3), pages 357-385, May.
    21. Richard Barkham & David Geltner, 1995. "Price Discovery in American and British Property Markets," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 23(1), pages 21-44, March.
    22. Darrat, Ali F & Glascock, John L, 1993. "On the Real Estate Market Efficiency," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 7(1), pages 55-72, July.
    23. William C. Wheaton, 1999. "Real Estate “Cycles”: Some Fundamentals," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 27(2), pages 209-230, June.
    24. Shiller, Robert J, 1990. "Speculative Prices and Popular Models," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 4(2), pages 55-65, Spring.
    25. Shiller, Robert J, 1990. "Market Volatility and Investor Behavior," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 80(2), pages 58-62, May.
    26. Stephen Malpezzi & Susan Wachter, 2005. "The Role of Speculation in Real Estate Cycles," Journal of Real Estate Literature, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 13(2), pages 141-164, January.
    27. Jim Clayton, 1998. "Further Evidence on Real Estate Market Efficiency," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 15(1), pages 41-58.
    28. Fogler, H Russell & Granito, Michael R & Smith, Laurence R, 1985. "A Theoretical Analysis of Real Estate Returns," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 40(3), pages 711-719, July.
    29. Case, Karl E & Shiller, Robert J, 1989. "The Efficiency of the Market for Single-Family Homes," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 79(1), pages 125-137, March.
    30. Tirtiroglu, Dogan, 1992. "Efficiency in housing markets: Temporal and spatial dimensions," Journal of Housing Economics, Elsevier, vol. 2(3), pages 276-292, September.
    31. Deborah Ann Ford & Michele Gilligan, 1988. "The Effect of Lead Paint Abatement Laws on Rental Property Values," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 16(1), pages 84-94, March.
    32. Jensen, Michael C., 1978. "Some anomalous evidence regarding market efficiency," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 6(2-3), pages 95-101.
    33. Zheng Wang, 2004. "Dynamics of Urban Residential Property Prices-- A Case Study of the Manhattan Market," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 29(1), pages 99-118, July.
    34. Jacques Gordon & Paige MosbaughTodd Canter & Todd Canter, 1996. "Integrating Regional Economic Indicators with the Real Estate Cycle," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 12(3), pages 469-501.
    35. Fama, Eugene F, et al, 1969. "The Adjustment of Stock Prices to New Information," International Economic Review, Department of Economics, University of Pennsylvania and Osaka University Institute of Social and Economic Research Association, vol. 10(1), pages 1-21, February.
    36. Karl L. Guntermann & Richard L. Smith, 1987. "Efficiency of the Market for Residential Real Estate," Land Economics, University of Wisconsin Press, vol. 63(1), pages 34-45.
    37. Jim Clayton, 1996. "Market Fundamentals, Risk and the Canadian Property Cycle: Implications for Property Valuation and Investment Decisions," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 12(3), pages 347-368.
    38. Joseph Gyourko & Donald B. Keim, 1992. "What Does the Stock Market Tell Us About Real Estate Returns?," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 20(3), pages 457-485, September.
    39. Banz, Rolf W., 1981. "The relationship between return and market value of common stocks," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 9(1), pages 3-18, March.
    40. Richard Meese & Nancy Wallace, 2003. "House Price Dynamics and Market Fundamentals: The Parisian Housing Market," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 40(5-6), pages 1027-1045, May.
    41. Richard D. Evans & William Rayburn, 1991. "The Effect of School Desegregation Decisions on Single-Family Housing Prices," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 6(2), pages 107-216.
    42. Fama, Eugene F, 1991. "Efficient Capital Markets: II," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 46(5), pages 1575-1617, December.
    43. Capozza, Dennis R. & Seguin, Paul J., 1996. "Expectations, efficiency, and euphoria in the housing market," Regional Science and Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 26(3-4), pages 369-386, June.
    44. Bradford Case & William Goetzmann & K. Rouwenhorst, 1999. "Global Real Estate Markets: Cycles And Fundamentals," Yale School of Management Working Papers ysm20, Yale School of Management, revised 01 Jan 2001.
    45. Terrance R. Skantz & Thomas H. Strickland, 1987. "House Prices and a Flood Event: An Empirical Investigation of Market Efficiency," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 2(2), pages 75-83.
    46. Kicki Björklund & Bo Söderberg, 1999. "Property Cycles, Speculative Bubbles and the Gross Income Multiplier," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 18(1), pages 151-174.
    47. Mankiw, N. Gregory & Weil, David N., 1989. "The baby boom, the baby bust, and the housing market," Regional Science and Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 19(2), pages 235-258, May.
    48. Grossman, Sanford, 1978. "Further results on the informational efficiency of competitive stock markets," Journal of Economic Theory, Elsevier, vol. 18(1), pages 81-101, June.
    49. Darrat, Ali F & Glascock, John L, 1989. "Real Estate Returns, Money and Fiscal Deficits: Is the Real Estate Market Efficient?," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 2(3), pages 197-208, September.
    50. Yuming Fu & Lilian K. Ng, 2001. "Market Efficiency and Return Statistics: Evidence from Real Estate and Stock Markets Using a Present‐Value Approach," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 29(2), pages 227-250.
    51. Erling Røed Larsen & Steffen Weum, 2007. "Home, Sweet Home or Is It - Always? Testing the Efficiency of the Norwegian Housing Market," Discussion Papers 506, Statistics Norway, Research Department.
    52. Meese Richard & Wallace Nancy, 1994. "Testing the Present Value Relation for Housing Prices: Should I Leave My House in San Francisco?," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 35(3), pages 245-266, May.
    53. McIntosh, Willard & Henderson, Glenn V, Jr, 1989. "Efficiency of the Office Properties Market," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 2(1), pages 61-70, February.
    54. John S. Hekman, 1985. "Rental Price Adjustment and Investment in the Office Market," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 13(1), pages 32-47, March.
    55. Henry O. Pollakowski & Susan M. Wachter, 1990. "The Effects of Land-Use Constraints on Housing Prices," Land Economics, University of Wisconsin Press, vol. 66(3), pages 315-324.
    56. Alan W. Evans, 1995. "The Property Market: Ninety Per Cent Efficient?," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 32(1), pages 5-29, February.
    57. Robert P. Berrens & Michael McKee, 2004. "What Price Nondisclosure? The Effects of Nondisclosure of Real Estate Sales Prices," Social Science Quarterly, Southwestern Social Science Association, vol. 85(2), pages 509-520, June.
    58. Dean H. Gatzlaff, 1994. "Excess Returns, Inflation and the Efficiency of the Housing Market," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 22(4), pages 553-581, December.
    59. Karl E. Case & Robert J. Shiller, 1990. "Forecasting Prices and Excess Returns in the Housing Market," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 18(3), pages 253-273, September.
    60. Fama, Eugene F, 1970. "Efficient Capital Markets: A Review of Theory and Empirical Work," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 25(2), pages 383-417, May.
    61. Max Kummerow, 1999. "A System Dynamics Model of Cyclical Office Oversupply," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 18(1), pages 233-255.
    62. Takatoshi Ito & Tokuo Iwaisako, 1996. "Explaining Asset Bubbles in Japan," Monetary and Economic Studies, Institute for Monetary and Economic Studies, Bank of Japan, vol. 14(1), pages 143-193, July.
    63. Joseph Gyourko & Donald B. Keim, "undated". "What Does the Stock Market Tell Us About Real Estate Returns? (Revision of 18-91) (Reprint 030)," Rodney L. White Center for Financial Research Working Papers 11-92, Wharton School Rodney L. White Center for Financial Research.
    64. Karl E. Case & Robert J. Shiller, 2003. "Is There a Bubble in the Housing Market?," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 34(2), pages 299-362.
    65. Lee, Charles & Shleifer, Andrei & Thaler, Richard H, 1990. "Anomalies: Closed-End Mutual Funds," Scholarly Articles 33077904, Harvard University Department of Economics.
    66. Dennis R. Capozza & Patric H. Hendershott & Charlotte Mack & Christopher J. Mayer, 2002. "Determinants of Real House Price Dynamics," NBER Working Papers 9262, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    67. Leon G. Shilton & Janet K. Tandy, 1993. "The Information Precision of CBD Office Vacancy Rates," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 8(3), pages 421-444.
    68. George W. Gau, 1987. "Efficient Real Estate Markets: Paradox or Paradigm?†," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 15(2), pages 1-12, June.
    69. Dennis R. Capozza & Charlotte Mack & Patric H. Hendershott & Christopher J. Mayer, 2002. "The Determinants of House Price Dynamics," ERES eres2002_106, European Real Estate Society (ERES).
    70. Barkham, R. J. & Geltner, D. M., 1996. "Price Discovery and Efficiency in the UK Housing Market," Journal of Housing Economics, Elsevier, vol. 5(1), pages 41-63, March.
    71. Lee, Charles M C & Shleifer, Andrei & Thaler, Richard H, 1990. "Closed-End Mutual Funds," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 4(4), pages 153-164, Fall.
    72. Hamilton, Bruce W. & Schwab, Robert M., 1985. "Expected appreciation in urban housing markets," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 18(1), pages 103-118, July.
    73. George W. Gau, 1985. "Public Information and Abnormal Returns in Real Estate Investment," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 13(1), pages 15-31, March.
    74. William C. Wheaton & Lawrence Rossoff, 1998. "The Cyclic Behavior of the U.S. Lodging Industry," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 26(1), pages 67-82, March.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Roberto Dieci & Frank Westerhoff, 2012. "A simple model of a speculative housing market," Journal of Evolutionary Economics, Springer, vol. 22(2), pages 303-329, April.
    2. Agnieszka Małkowska & Małgorzata Uhruska & Mateusz Tomal, 2019. "Age and Experience versus Susceptibility to Client Pressure among Property Valuation Professionals—Implications for Rethinking Institutional Framework," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 11(23), pages 1-23, November.
    3. Gunther Maier, 2011. "Immobilienbewertung - theoretische Konzepte und praktische Anwendungen," SRE-Disc sre-disc-2011_03, Institute for Multilevel Governance and Development, Department of Socioeconomics, Vienna University of Economics and Business.
    4. Felix Schindler, 2014. "Persistence and Predictability in UK House Price Movements," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 48(1), pages 132-163, January.
    5. Zhang, Hao & Huang, Yuyuan & Yao, Haixiang, 2016. "Heterogeneous expectation, beliefs evolution and house price volatility," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 53(C), pages 409-418.
    6. Omokolade Akinsomi & Goodness C. Aye & Vassilios Babalos & Fotini Economou & Rangan Gupta, 2016. "Real estate returns predictability revisited: novel evidence from the US REITs market," Empirical Economics, Springer, vol. 51(3), pages 1165-1190, November.
    7. Luis A. Gil-Alana & Goodness C. Aye & Rangan Gupta, 2012. "Testing for Persistence with Breaks and Outliers in South African House Prices," Working Papers 201233, University of Pretoria, Department of Economics.
    8. Felix Schindler, 2013. "Predictability and Persistence of the Price Movements of the S&P/Case-Shiller House Price Indices," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 46(1), pages 44-90, January.
    9. Correia, Inês C. & Ferreira, Fernando A.F. & Zopounidis, Constantin & Ferreira, Neuza C.M.Q.F., 2024. "Urban expansion effects on real estate ecosystems: Identification and neutrosophic analysis of causal dynamics," Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, Elsevier, vol. 93(C).

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Ghysels, Eric & Plazzi, Alberto & Valkanov, Rossen & Torous, Walter, 2013. "Forecasting Real Estate Prices," Handbook of Economic Forecasting, in: G. Elliott & C. Granger & A. Timmermann (ed.), Handbook of Economic Forecasting, edition 1, volume 2, chapter 0, pages 509-580, Elsevier.
    2. Armonat, Stefan & Pfnür, Andreas, 2002. "Basel II and the German credit crunch?," Publications of Darmstadt Technical University, Institute for Business Studies (BWL) 35585, Darmstadt Technical University, Department of Business Administration, Economics and Law, Institute for Business Studies (BWL).
    3. Felix Schindler, 2014. "Persistence and Predictability in UK House Price Movements," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 48(1), pages 132-163, January.
    4. Felix Schindler, 2013. "Predictability and Persistence of the Price Movements of the S&P/Case-Shiller House Price Indices," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 46(1), pages 44-90, January.
    5. Daniel, Kent & Hirshleifer, David & Teoh, Siew Hong, 2002. "Investor psychology in capital markets: evidence and policy implications," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 49(1), pages 139-209, January.
    6. Robert Edelstein & Desmond Tsang, 2007. "Dynamic Residential Housing Cycles Analysis," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 35(3), pages 295-313, October.
    7. Oikarinen, Elias, 2009. "Household borrowing and metropolitan housing price dynamics - Empirical evidence from Helsinki," Journal of Housing Economics, Elsevier, vol. 18(2), pages 126-139, June.
    8. Alan W. Evans, 1995. "The Property Market: Ninety Per Cent Efficient?," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 32(1), pages 5-29, February.
    9. Jim Clayton, 1998. "Further Evidence on Real Estate Market Efficiency," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 15(1), pages 41-58.
    10. William L. Attebery & Ronald C. Rutherford & Mark E. Eakin, 1993. "Industrial Real Estate Prices and Market Efficiency," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 8(3), pages 377-386.
    11. Yuval Arbel & Danny Ben-Shahar & Eyal Sulganik, 2009. "Mean Reversion and Momentum: Another Look at the Price-Volume Correlation in the Real Estate Market," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 39(3), pages 316-335, October.
    12. François Ortalo-Magné & Sven Rady, 2006. "Housing Market Dynamics: On the Contribution of Income Shocks and Credit Constraints ," The Review of Economic Studies, Review of Economic Studies Ltd, vol. 73(2), pages 459-485.
    13. David Hirshleifer, 2001. "Investor Psychology and Asset Pricing," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 56(4), pages 1533-1597, August.
    14. Jiyoung Chae & Anil K. Bera, 2024. "Spatial Market Inefficiency in Housing Market: A Spatial Quantile Regression Approach," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 69(1), pages 70-99, July.
    15. Committee, Nobel Prize, 2013. "Understanding Asset Prices," Nobel Prize in Economics documents 2013-1, Nobel Prize Committee.
    16. Geoffrey Keogh & Eamonn D'Arcy, 1999. "Property Market Efficiency: An Institutional Economics Perspective," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 36(13), pages 2401-2414, December.
    17. Esra ALP & Ünal SEVEN, 2019. "Türkiye Konut Piyasasında Etkinlik Analizi," Istanbul Business Research, Istanbul University Business School, vol. 48(1), pages 84-112, May.
    18. Adam Zaremba & Jacob Koby Shemer, 2018. "Price-Based Investment Strategies," Springer Books, Springer, number 978-3-319-91530-2, January.
    19. Ren, Yu & Xiong, Cong & Yuan, Yufei, 2012. "House price bubbles in China," China Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 23(4), pages 786-800.
    20. Duca, John V. & Muellbauer, John & Murphy, Anthony, 2010. "Housing markets and the financial crisis of 2007-2009: Lessons for the future," Journal of Financial Stability, Elsevier, vol. 6(4), pages 203-217, December.

    More about this item

    JEL classification:

    • R3 - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics - - Real Estate Markets, Spatial Production Analysis, and Firm Location

    NEP fields

    This paper has been announced in the following NEP Reports:

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:wiw:wiwsre:sre-disc-2009_07. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Gunther Maier (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.wu-wien.ac.at/mlgd/ .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.