Invisible No More: Unmasking the Underestimated Female Labour Market Work

This article utilizes a rare Time Use Survey (TUS), focusing on Pakistan, to uncover productive labour market activities that often go unnoticed in mainstream labour force surveys (LFS). Leveraging rich time use data along with labour force classification question, we identify and analyse the invisible workforce. Moreover, employing the multinomial logit model, I examine the determinants—such as human capital accumulation (or lack thereof), mobility constraints and financial well-being—of the invisible labour force among women and men aged 10–74 years in Pakistan. The findings reveal significant gender disparities within the invisible workforce, with women constituting a staggering 88% of its members. These women predominantly engage in part-time work concurrently with other activities within their own dwellings, particularly in sectors such as textiles, crafts and animal husbandry. Furthermore, I uncover that the lack of human capital and mobility constraints significantly increase the probability of participation in the invisible workforce. This article tackles the challenge of accurately measuring women’s engagement in productive work by identifying and examining the ‘invisible workforce’ through a unique survey method. Notably, this TUS stands out as the only one available in the South Asian context that integrates LFS questions to identify and study the invisible workforce. The implications of these findings extend to the development of more inclusive measurement frameworks and the promotion of gender equality in labour force participation. JEL Codes: J21, J24, J16, D13