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World Trade Center Disaster Exposure-Related Probable Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among Responders and Civilians: A Meta-Analysis

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  • Bian Liu
  • Lukman H Tarigan
  • Evelyn J Bromet
  • Hyun Kim

Abstract

The World Trade Center (WTC) disaster on September 11, 2001 was an unprecedented traumatic event with long-lasting health consequences among the affected populations in the New York metropolitan area. This meta-analysis aimed to estimate the risk of probable posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) associated with specific types of WTC exposures. Meta-analytical findings from 10 studies of 3,271 to 20,294 participants yielded 37 relevant associations. The pooled summary odds ratio (OR) was 2.05 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.82, 2.32), with substantial heterogeneity linked to exposure classification, cohort type, data source, PTSD assessment instrument/criteria, and lapse time since 9/11. In general, responders (e.g. police, firefighters, rescue/recovery workers and volunteers) had a lower probable PTSD risk (OR = 1.61; 95% CI: 1.39, 1.87) compared to civilians (e.g. residents, office workers, and passersby; OR = 2.71, 95% CI: 2.35, 3.12). The differences in ORs between responders and civilians were larger for physical compared to psychosocial exposure types. We also found that injury, lost someone, and witnessed horror were the three (out of six) most pernicious exposures. These findings suggest that these three exposures should be a particular focus in psychological evaluation and treatment programs in WTC intervention and future emergency preparedness efforts.

Suggested Citation

  • Bian Liu & Lukman H Tarigan & Evelyn J Bromet & Hyun Kim, 2014. "World Trade Center Disaster Exposure-Related Probable Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among Responders and Civilians: A Meta-Analysis," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 9(7), pages 1-10, July.
    • Handle: RePEc:plo:pone00:0101491
    DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0101491
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    2. Hyun Kim & Navneet Kaur Baidwan & David Kriebel & Manuel Cifuentes & Sherry Baron, 2018. "Asthma among World Trade Center First Responders: A Qualitative Synthesis and Bias Assessment," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 15(6), pages 1-14, May.
    3. Rebecca Rosen & Yongzhao Shao & Qiao Zhang & Jia Bao & Yian Zhang & Arjun Masurkar & Thomas Wisniewski & Nina Urban & Joan Reibman, 2022. "Cognitive Function among World Trade Center-Exposed Community Members with Mental Health Symptoms," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(6), pages 1-13, March.
    4. Albeliz Santiago-Colón & Robert Daniels & Dori Reissman & Kristi Anderson & Geoffrey Calvert & Alexis Caplan & Tania Carreón & Alan Katruska & Travis Kubale & Ruiling Liu & Rhonda Nembhard & W. Allen , 2020. "World Trade Center Health Program: First Decade of Research," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(19), pages 1-25, October.
    5. Robert D. Daniels & Sean A. P. Clouston & Charles B. Hall & Kristi R. Anderson & David A. Bennett & Evelyn J. Bromet & Geoffrey M. Calvert & Tania Carreón & Steven T. DeKosky & Erica D. Diminich & Cal, 2021. "A Workshop on Cognitive Aging and Impairment in the 9/11-Exposed Population," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(2), pages 1-24, January.
    6. Gallagher, H. Colin & Block, Karen & Gibbs, Lisa & Forbes, David & Lusher, Dean & Molyneaux, Robyn & Richardson, John & Pattison, Philippa & MacDougall, Colin & Bryant, Richard A., 2019. "The effect of group involvement on post-disaster mental health: A longitudinal multilevel analysis," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 220(C), pages 167-175.
    7. Yin Ying Hsiao & Wei Hung Chang & I Chun Ma & Chen-Long Wu & Po See Chen & Yen Kuang Yang & Chih-Hao Lin, 2019. "Long-Term PTSD Risks in Emergency Medical Technicians Who Responded to the 2016 Taiwan Earthquake: A Six-Month Observational Follow-Up Study," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 16(24), pages 1-12, December.
    8. Sarbjit Singh Johal & Zoe Rachel Mounsey, 2017. "Recovering from disaster: Comparing the experiences of nurses and general practitioners after the Canterbury, New Zealand earthquake sequence 2010–2011," Nursing & Health Sciences, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 19(1), pages 29-34, March.

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