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Incidence of HIV in Windhoek, Namibia: Demographic and Socio-Economic Associations

Author

Listed:
  • Marielle Aulagnier
  • Wendy Janssens
  • Ingrid De Beer
  • Gert van Rooy
  • Esegiel Gaeb
  • Cees Hesp
  • Jacques van der Gaag
  • Tobias F Rinke de Wit

Abstract

Objective: To estimate HIV incidence and prevalence in Windhoek, Namibia and to analyze socio-economic factors related to HIV infection. Method: In 2006/7, baseline surveys were performed with 1,753 private households living in the greater Windhoek area; follow-up visits took place in 2008 and 2009. Face-to-face socio-economic questionnaires were administrated by trained interviewers; biomedical markers were collected by nurses; GPS codes of household residences were recorded. Results: The HIV prevalence in the population (aged>12 years) was 11.8% in 2006/7 and 14.6% in 2009. HIV incidence between 2007 and 2009 was 2.4 per 100 person year (95%CI = 1.9–2.9). HIV incidence and prevalence were higher in female populations. HIV incidence appeared non-associated with any socioeconomic factor, indicating universal risk for the population. For women a positive trend was found between low per-capita consumption and HIV acquisition. A HIV knowledge score was strongly associated with HIV incidence for both men and women. High HIV prevalence and incidence was concentrated in the north-western part of the city, an area with lower HIV knowledge, higher HIV risk perception and lower per-capita consumption. Discussion: The HIV incidence and prevalence figures do not suggest a declining epidemic in Windhoek. Higher vulnerability of women is recorded, most likely related to economic dependency and increasing transactional sex in Namibia. The lack of relation between HIV incidence and socio-economic factors confirms HIV risks for the overall urban community. Appropriate knowledge is strongly associated to lower HIV incidence and prevalence, underscoring the importance of continuous information and education activities for prevention of infection. Geographical areas were identified that would require prioritized HIV campaigning.

Suggested Citation

  • Marielle Aulagnier & Wendy Janssens & Ingrid De Beer & Gert van Rooy & Esegiel Gaeb & Cees Hesp & Jacques van der Gaag & Tobias F Rinke de Wit, 2011. "Incidence of HIV in Windhoek, Namibia: Demographic and Socio-Economic Associations," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 6(10), pages 1-9, October.
    • Handle: RePEc:plo:pone00:0025860
    DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025860
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Margaret Grosh & Paul Glewwe, 2000. "Designing Household Survey Questionnaires for Developing Countries : Lessons from 15 Years of the Living Standards Measurement Study, Volume 3," World Bank Publications - Books, The World Bank Group, number 15195.
    2. Dunkle, Kristin L. & Jewkes, Rachel K. & Brown, Heather C. & Gray, Glenda E. & McIntryre, James A. & Harlow, Siobán D., 2004. "Transactional sex among women in Soweto, South Africa: prevalence, risk factors and association with HIV infection," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 59(8), pages 1581-1592, October.
    3. Jewkes, Rachel K. & Levin, Jonathan B. & Penn-Kekana, Loveday A., 2003. "Gender inequalities, intimate partner violence and HIV preventive practices: findings of a South African cross-sectional study," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 56(1), pages 125-134, January.
    4. Margaret Grosh & Paul Glewwe, 2000. "Designing Household Survey Questionnaires for Developing Countries," World Bank Publications - Books, The World Bank Group, number 25338.
    5. MacPhail, Catherine & Campbell, Catherine, 2001. "'I think condoms are good but, aai, I hate those things': : condom use among adolescents and young people in a Southern African township," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 52(11), pages 1613-1627, June.
    6. Margaret Grosh & Paul Glewwe, 2000. "Designing Household Survey Questionnaires for Developing Countries : Lessons from 15 Years of the Living Standards Measurement Study, Volume 2," World Bank Publications - Books, The World Bank Group, number 15194.
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    Cited by:

    1. Wendy Janssens & Jacques Gaag & Tobias Rinke de Wit & Zlata Tanović, 2014. "Refusal Bias in the Estimation of HIV Prevalence," Demography, Springer;Population Association of America (PAA), vol. 51(3), pages 1131-1157, June.
    2. Taaffe, Jessica & Fraser-Hurt, Nicole & Gorgens, Marelize & Harimurti, Pandu, 2014. "A comprehensive review of empirical and modeled HIV incidence trends (1990-2012)," Policy Research Working Paper Series 7042, The World Bank.
    3. Michael Ekholuenetale & Herbert Onuoha & Charity Ehimwenma Ekholuenetale & Amadou Barrow & Chimezie Igwegbe Nzoputam, 2021. "Socioeconomic Inequalities in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Sero-Prevalence among Women in Namibia: Further Analysis of Population-Based Data," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(17), pages 1-13, September.
    4. Muhinda JC & Pazvakawambwa L, 2017. "HIV Testing among Women in Namibia: Patterns and Determinants," Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research, Biomedical Research Network+, LLC, vol. 1(3), pages 571-578, August.
    5. Muchomba, Felix M. & Wang, Julia Shu-Huah & Agosta, Laura Maria, 2014. "Women's land ownership and risk of HIV infection in Kenya," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 114(C), pages 97-102.

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