IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/pal/jintbs/v49y2018i5d10.1057_s41267-017-0142-4.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

The role of earnout financing on the valuation effects of global diversification

Author

Listed:
  • Leonidas G Barbopoulos

    (University of Glasgow)

  • Jo Danbolt

    (University of Edinburgh)

  • Dimitris Alexakis

    (Independent Researcher)

Abstract

This article examines the impact of earnout financing on the value of acquiring firms engaged in cross-border acquisitions (CBAs), using a dataset of UK, US, Canadian and Australian firms from 1992 to 2012. The results show that firms initiating international business operations via earnout-financed CBAs enhance their value more than acquirers in (a) domestic acquisitions and (b) remaining CBAs by established multinational corporations (MNCs). Our findings demonstrate the superiority of earnout financing in CBAs announced by acquirers that have no prior international business experience. The results are robust to the firms’ endogenous choice to diversify globally and to the use of earnout financing. We contend that earnouts contribute to the reduction of valuation risk faced by firms acquiring a foreign target firm for the first time. Our empirical findings contribute to the existing debate on the merit of international expansion through CBAs and the role of earnout contingent payment.

Suggested Citation

  • Leonidas G Barbopoulos & Jo Danbolt & Dimitris Alexakis, 2018. "The role of earnout financing on the valuation effects of global diversification," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 49(5), pages 523-551, July.
    • Handle: RePEc:pal:jintbs:v:49:y:2018:i:5:d:10.1057_s41267-017-0142-4
    DOI: 10.1057/s41267-017-0142-4
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://link.springer.com/10.1057/s41267-017-0142-4
    File Function: Abstract
    Download Restriction: Access to full text is restricted to subscribers.
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1057/s41267-017-0142-4?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Mara Faccio & Ronald W. Masulis, 2005. "The Choice of Payment Method in European Mergers and Acquisitions," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 60(3), pages 1345-1388, June.
    2. Bradley, Michael & Desai, Anand & Kim, E. Han, 1988. "Synergistic gains from corporate acquisitions and their division between the stockholders of target and acquiring firms," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 21(1), pages 3-40, May.
    3. X. Frank Zhang, 2006. "Information Uncertainty and Stock Returns," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 61(1), pages 105-137, February.
    4. Jo Danbolt & Gillian Maciver, 2012. "Cross-Border versus Domestic Acquisitions and the Impact on Shareholder Wealth," Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 39(7-8), pages 1028-1067, September.
    5. Mantecon, Tomas, 2009. "Mitigating risks in cross-border acquisitions," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 33(4), pages 640-651, April.
    6. Errunza, Vihang R & Senbet, Lemma W, 1984. "International Corporate Diversification, Market Valuation, and Size-Adjusted Evidence," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 39(3), pages 727-743, July.
    7. Conconi, Paola & Sapir, André & Zanardi, Maurizio, 2016. "The internationalization process of firms: From exports to FDI," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 99(C), pages 16-30.
    8. Oded Shenkar, 2001. "Cultural Distance Revisited: Towards a More Rigorous Conceptualization and Measurement of Cultural Differences," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 32(3), pages 519-535, September.
    9. Yakov Amihud & Baruch Lev, 1981. "Risk Reduction as a Managerial Motive for Conglomerate Mergers," Bell Journal of Economics, The RAND Corporation, vol. 12(2), pages 605-617, Autumn.
    10. Bülent Aybar & Aysun Ficici, 2009. "Cross-border acquisitions and firm value: An analysis of emerging-market multinationals," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 40(8), pages 1317-1338, October.
    11. La Porta, Rafael & Florencio Lopez-de-Silanes & Andrei Shleifer & Robert W. Vishny, 1997. "Legal Determinants of External Finance," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 52(3), pages 1131-1150, July.
    12. Dan V Caprar & Timothy M Devinney & Bradley L Kirkman & Paula Caligiuri, 2015. "Conceptualizing and measuring culture in international business and management: From challenges to potential solutions," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 46(9), pages 1011-1027, December.
    13. Errunza, Vihang R & Senbet, Lemma W, 1981. "The Effects of International Operations on the Market Value of the Firm: Theory and Evidence," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 36(2), pages 401-417, May.
    14. Jeffrey J Reuer & Oded Shenkar & Roberto Ragozzino, 2004. "Mitigating risk in international mergers and acquisitions: the role of contingent payouts," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 35(1), pages 19-32, January.
    15. repec:bla:jfinan:v:44:y:1989:i:1:p:41-57 is not listed on IDEAS
    16. Faccio, Mara & McConnell, John J. & Stolin, David, 2006. "Returns to Acquirers of Listed and Unlisted Targets," Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, Cambridge University Press, vol. 41(1), pages 197-220, March.
    17. Marina Martynova & Luc Renneboog, 2010. "Spillover of Corporate Governance Standards in Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisition," Chapters, in: Alessio M. Pacces (ed.), The Law and Economics of Corporate Governance, chapter 3, Edward Elgar Publishing.
    18. Malcolm Baker & C. Fritz Foley & Jeffrey Wurgler, 2009. "Multinationals as Arbitrageurs: The Effect of Stock Market Valuations on Foreign Direct Investment," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 22(1), pages 337-369, January.
    19. David J. Denis & Diane K. Denis & Keven Yost, 2002. "Global Diversification, Industrial Diversification, and Firm Value," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 57(5), pages 1951-1979, October.
    20. Arturo Bris & Christos Cabolis, 2008. "The Value of Investor Protection: Firm Evidence from Cross-Border Mergers," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 21(2), pages 605-648, April.
    21. Mitchell A. Petersen, 2009. "Estimating Standard Errors in Finance Panel Data Sets: Comparing Approaches," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 22(1), pages 435-480, January.
    22. Jesse A Ellis & Sara B Moeller & Frederik P Schlingemann & René M Stulz, 2017. "Portable country governance and cross-border acquisitions," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 48(2), pages 148-173, February.
    23. Cain, Matthew D. & Denis, David J. & Denis, Diane K., 2011. "Earnouts: A study of financial contracting in acquisition agreements," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 51(1-2), pages 151-170, February.
    24. Rajeev H. Dehejia & Sadek Wahba, 2002. "Propensity Score-Matching Methods For Nonexperimental Causal Studies," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 84(1), pages 151-161, February.
    25. Amar Gande & Christoph Schenzler & Lemma W Senbet, 2009. "Valuation effects of global diversification," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 40(9), pages 1515-1532, December.
    26. Jensen, Michael C, 1986. "Agency Costs of Free Cash Flow, Corporate Finance, and Takeovers," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 76(2), pages 323-329, May.
    27. Luc Renneboog & Peter G. Szilagyi & Cara Vansteenkiste, 2017. "Creditor rights, claims enforcement, and bond performance in mergers and acquisitions," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 48(2), pages 174-194, February.
    28. Eckbo, B Espen & Giammarino, Ronald M & Heinkel, Robert L, 1990. "Asymmetric Information and the Medium of Exchange in Takeovers: Theory and Tests," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 3(4), pages 651-675.
    29. Brian Cadman & Richard Carrizosa & Lucile Faurel, 2014. "Economic Determinants and Information Environment Effects of Earnouts: New Insights from SFAS 141(R)," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 52(1), pages 37-74, March.
    30. Doukas, John, 1995. "Overinvestment, Tobin's q and gains from foreign acquisitions," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 19(7), pages 1285-1303, October.
    31. Jose Manuel Campa & Simi Kedia, 2002. "Explaining the Diversification Discount," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 57(4), pages 1731-1762, August.
    32. Barbopoulos, Leonidas & Marshall, Andrew & MacInnes, Cameron & McColgan, Patrick, 2014. "Foreign direct investment in emerging markets and acquirers’ value gains," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 23(3), pages 604-619.
    33. Eckbo, B. Espen, 2009. "Bidding strategies and takeover premiums: A review," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 15(1), pages 149-178, February.
    34. Datar, Srikant & Frankel, Richard & Wolfson, Mark, 2001. "Earnouts: The Effects of Adverse Selection and Agency Costs on Acquisition Techniques," The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, Oxford University Press, vol. 17(1), pages 201-238, April.
    35. Bruce Kogut & Harbir Singh, 1988. "The Effect of National Culture on the Choice of Entry Mode," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 19(3), pages 411-432, September.
    36. Bradley L Kirkman & Kevin B Lowe & Cristina B Gibson, 2017. "A retrospective on Culture’s Consequences: The 35-year journey," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 48(1), pages 12-29, January.
    37. Kohers, Ninon & Ang, James, 2000. "Earnouts in Mergers: Agreeing to Disagree and Agreeing to Stay," The Journal of Business, University of Chicago Press, vol. 73(3), pages 445-476, July.
    38. Manzon, Gil B, Jr & Sharp, David J & Travlos, Nickolaos G, 1994. "An Empirical Study of the Consequences of U.S. Tax Rules for International Acquisitions by U.S. Firms," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 49(5), pages 1893-1904, December.
    39. Huizinga, Harry & Voget, Johannes & Wagner, Wolf, 2012. "Who bears the burden of international taxation? Evidence from cross-border M&As," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 88(1), pages 186-197.
    40. Moeller, Sara B. & Schlingemann, Frederik P., 2005. "Global diversification and bidder gains: A comparison between cross-border and domestic acquisitions," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 29(3), pages 533-564, March.
    41. Piero Morosini & Scott Shane & Harbir Singh, 1998. "National Cultural Distance and Cross-Border Acquisition Performance," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 29(1), pages 137-158, March.
    42. repec:bla:jfinan:v:43:y:1988:i:5:p:1161-75 is not listed on IDEAS
    43. Sjoerd Beugelsdijk & Tatiana Kostova & Kendall Roth, 2017. "An overview of Hofstede-inspired country-level culture research in international business since 2006," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 48(1), pages 30-47, January.
    44. repec:bla:jfinan:v:53:y:1998:i:2:p:773-784 is not listed on IDEAS
    45. Anju Seth & Kean P Song & Richardson Pettit, 2000. "Synergy, Managerialism or Hubris? An Empirical Examination of Motives for Foreign Acquisitions of U.S. Firms," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 31(3), pages 387-405, September.
    46. Rossi, Stefano & Volpin, Paolo F., 2004. "Cross-country determinants of mergers and acquisitions," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 74(2), pages 277-304, November.
    47. Xie, En & Reddy, K.S. & Liang, Jie, 2017. "Country-specific determinants of cross-border mergers and acquisitions: A comprehensive review and future research directions," Journal of World Business, Elsevier, vol. 52(2), pages 127-183.
    48. Shimizu, Katsuhiko & Hitt, Michael A. & Vaidyanath, Deepa & Pisano, Vincenzo, 2004. "Theoretical foundations of cross-border mergers and acquisitions: A review of current research and recommendations for the future," Journal of International Management, Elsevier, vol. 10(3), pages 307-353.
    49. Laszlo Tihanyi & David A Griffith & Craig J Russell, 2005. "The effect of cultural distance on entry mode choice, international diversification, and MNE performance: a meta-analysis," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 36(3), pages 270-283, May.
    50. Bradley L Kirkman & Kevin B Lowe & Cristina B Gibson, 2006. "A quarter century of Culture's Consequences: a review of empirical research incorporating Hofstede's cultural values framework," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 37(3), pages 285-320, May.
    51. Behr, Andreas & Heid, Frank, 2011. "The success of bank mergers revisited. An assessment based on a matching strategy," Journal of Empirical Finance, Elsevier, vol. 18(1), pages 117-135, January.
    52. Kiymaz, Halil, 2004. "Cross-border acquisitions of US financial institutions: Impact of macroeconomic factors," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 28(6), pages 1413-1439, June.
    53. Anusha Chari & Paige P. Ouimet & Linda L. Tesar, 2010. "The Value of Control in Emerging Markets," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 23(4), pages 1741-1770, April.
    54. Ole-Kristian Hope & Wayne Thomas & Dushyantkumar Vyas, 2011. "The cost of pride: Why do firms from developing countries bid higher?," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 42(1), pages 128-151, January.
    55. Huang, Peng & Officer, Micah S. & Powell, Ronan, 2016. "Method of payment and risk mitigation in cross-border mergers and acquisitions," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 40(C), pages 216-234.
    56. Hansen, Robert G, 1987. "A Theory for the Choice of Exchange Medium in Mergers and Acquisitions," The Journal of Business, University of Chicago Press, vol. 60(1), pages 75-95, January.
    57. Cain, Matthew D. & Denis, David J. & Denis, Diane K., 2011. "Earnouts: A study of financial contracting in acquisition agreements," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 51(1), pages 151-170.
    58. Kathleen Fuller & Jeffry Netter & Mike Stegemoller, 2002. "What Do Returns to Acquiring Firms Tell Us? Evidence from Firms That Make Many Acquisitions," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 57(4), pages 1763-1793, August.
    59. Constatinos C Markides & Christopher D Ittner, 1994. "Shareholder Benefits from Corporate International Diversification: Evidence from U.S. International Acquisitions," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 25(2), pages 343-366, June.
    60. Paul Draper & Krishna Paudyal, 2006. "Acquisitions: Private versus Public," European Financial Management, European Financial Management Association, vol. 12(1), pages 57-80, January.
    61. Barbopoulos, Leonidas & Sudarsanam, Sudi, 2012. "Determinants of earnout as acquisition payment currency and bidder’s value gains," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 36(3), pages 678-694.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Hossain, Mohammed Sawkat, 2021. "Merger & Acquisitions (M&As) as an important strategic vehicle in business: Thematic areas, research avenues & possible suggestions," Journal of Economics and Business, Elsevier, vol. 116(C).
    2. Schriber, Svante & Degischer, Daniel, 2020. "Disentangling acquisition experience: A multilevel analysis and future research agenda," Scandinavian Journal of Management, Elsevier, vol. 36(2).
    3. Monaco, Eleonora & Ibikunle, Gbenga & Palumbo, Riccardo & Zhang, Zeyu, 2022. "The liquidity and trading activity effects of acquisition payment methods: Evidence from the announcements of private firms' acquisitions," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 82(C).
    4. Dahlen, Niklas & Lahmann, Alexander & Schreiter, Maximilian, 2024. "Panacea for M&A dealmaking? Investor perceptions of earnouts," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 60(C).
    5. Adra, Samer & Barbopoulos, Leonidas G. & Saunders, Anthony, 2020. "The impact of monetary policy on M&A outcomes," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 62(C).
    6. Gada, Viswa Prasad & Goyal, Lakshmi & Popli, Manish, 2021. "Earnouts in M&A deal structuring: The impact of CEO prevention focus," Journal of International Management, Elsevier, vol. 27(1).
    7. Christian Falaster & Manuel Portugal Ferreira & Dan Li, 2021. "The influence of generalized and arbitrary institutional inefficiencies on the ownership decision in cross-border acquisitions," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 52(9), pages 1724-1749, December.
    8. Guo, Jianquan & Cheng, He, 2024. "Performance feedback on sales growth and M&A: Evidence from China," Japan and the World Economy, Elsevier, vol. 69(C).
    9. Leonidas G. Barbopoulos & Jo Danbolt, 2021. "The real effects of earnout contracts in M&As," Journal of Financial Research, Southern Finance Association;Southwestern Finance Association, vol. 44(3), pages 607-639, September.
    10. Chengguang Li & Ilgaz Arikan & Oded Shenkar & Asli Arikan, 2020. "The impact of country-dyadic military conflicts on market reaction to cross-border acquisitions," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 51(3), pages 299-325, April.
    11. Barbopoulos, Leonidas G. & Adra, Samer & Saunders, Anthony, 2020. "Macroeconomic news and acquirer returns in M&As: The impact of investor alertness," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 64(C).

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Leonidas G. Barbopoulos & Jo Danbolt, 2021. "The real effects of earnout contracts in M&As," Journal of Financial Research, Southern Finance Association;Southwestern Finance Association, vol. 44(3), pages 607-639, September.
    2. Barbopoulos, Leonidas & Sudarsanam, Sudi, 2012. "Determinants of earnout as acquisition payment currency and bidder’s value gains," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 36(3), pages 678-694.
    3. Yang Zhang, 2018. "Corporate Governance Effects on Risk Management and Shareholder Wealth: The Case of Mergers and Acquisitions," PhD Thesis, Finance Discipline Group, UTS Business School, University of Technology, Sydney, number 4-2018, January-A.
    4. Feito-Ruiz, Isabel & Menéndez-Requejo, Susana, 2011. "Cross-border Mergers and Acquisitions in different legal environments," International Review of Law and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 31(3), pages 169-187, September.
    5. Leonidas G. Barbopoulos & Krishna Paudyal & Sudi Sudarsanam, 2018. "Earnout deals: Method of initial payment and acquirers’ gains," European Financial Management, European Financial Management Association, vol. 24(5), pages 792-828, November.
    6. Mateev, Miroslav & Andonov, Kristiyan, 2016. "Do cross-border and domestic bidding firms perform differently? New evidence from continental Europe and the UK," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 37(C), pages 327-349.
    7. Gada, Viswa Prasad & Goyal, Lakshmi & Popli, Manish, 2021. "Earnouts in M&A deal structuring: The impact of CEO prevention focus," Journal of International Management, Elsevier, vol. 27(1).
    8. Gregory, Alan & O'Donohoe, Sheila, 2014. "Do cross border and domestic acquisitions differ? Evidence from the acquisition of UK targets," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 31(C), pages 61-69.
    9. Bhagat, Sanjai & Malhotra, Shavin & Zhu, PengCheng, 2011. "Emerging country cross-border acquisitions: Characteristics, acquirer returns and cross-sectional determinants," Emerging Markets Review, Elsevier, vol. 12(3), pages 250-271, September.
    10. Pandey, Vivek & Steigner, Tanja & Sutton, Ninon K., 2023. "The value of economic freedom in cross-border mergers," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 86(C), pages 540-563.
    11. Xie, En & Reddy, K.S. & Liang, Jie, 2017. "Country-specific determinants of cross-border mergers and acquisitions: A comprehensive review and future research directions," Journal of World Business, Elsevier, vol. 52(2), pages 127-183.
    12. Andrey Golubov & Dimitris Petmezas & Nickolaos G. Travlos, 2013. "Empirical mergers and acquisitions research: a review of methods, evidence and managerial implications," Chapters, in: Adrian R. Bell & Chris Brooks & Marcel Prokopczuk (ed.), Handbook of Research Methods and Applications in Empirical Finance, chapter 12, pages 287-313, Edward Elgar Publishing.
    13. Barbopoulos, Leonidas & Marshall, Andrew & MacInnes, Cameron & McColgan, Patrick, 2014. "Foreign direct investment in emerging markets and acquirers’ value gains," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 23(3), pages 604-619.
    14. Kohli, Reena & Mann, Bikram Jit Singh, 2013. "Analyzing the likelihood and the impact of earnout offers on acquiring company wealth gains in India," Emerging Markets Review, Elsevier, vol. 16(C), pages 203-222.
    15. Dang, Man & Henry, Darren & Nguyen, Manh Toan & Hoang, Viet Anh, 2018. "Cross-country determinants of ownership choices in cross-border acquisitions: Evidence from emerging markets," Journal of Multinational Financial Management, Elsevier, vol. 44(C), pages 14-35.
    16. Martynova, M., 2006. "The market for corporate control and corporate governance regulation in Europe," Other publications TiSEM 8651e281-4914-41f2-ac14-1, Tilburg University, School of Economics and Management.
    17. Szilagyi, P.G., 2007. "Corporate governance and the agency costs of debt and outside equity," Other publications TiSEM 9520d40a-224f-43a8-9bf9-b, Tilburg University, School of Economics and Management.
    18. Du, Min & Boateng, Agyenim, 2015. "State ownership, institutional effects and value creation in cross-border mergers & acquisitions by Chinese firms," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 24(3), pages 430-442.
    19. Barbopoulos, Leonidas G. & Adra, Samer & Saunders, Anthony, 2020. "Macroeconomic news and acquirer returns in M&As: The impact of investor alertness," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 64(C).
    20. Elnahas, Ahmed M. & Kabir Hassan, M. & Ismail, Ghada M., 2017. "Religion and mergers and acquisitions contracting: The case of earnout agreements," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 42(C), pages 221-246.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:pal:jintbs:v:49:y:2018:i:5:d:10.1057_s41267-017-0142-4. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Sonal Shukla or Springer Nature Abstracting and Indexing (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.palgrave-journals.com/ .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.