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Misleading Disclosure of Pro Forma Earnings: An Empirical Examination

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  • Gary Entwistle
  • Glenn Feltham
  • Chima Mbagwu

Abstract

The Sarbanes–Oxley (SOX) Act was passed in 2002 in response to various instances of corporate malfeasance. The Act, designed to protect investors, led to wide-ranging regulation over various actions of managers, auditors and investment analysts. Part of SOX, and the focus of this study, targeted the disclosure by firms of “pro formaâ€\x9D earnings, an alternate (from GAAP earnings), flexible and unaudited measure of firm performance. Specifically, SOX directed the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to craft regulation which would reduce – and preferably eliminate – any pro forma earnings disclosure which might be “misleadingâ€\x9D. Examining earnings press releases over a 3-year period, this study addresses three questions. Were firms disclosing pro forma in a potentially misleading manner, what was the nature of this potentially misleading disclosure, and did SOX affect the disclosure practices? We find the following. In 2001 (prior to SOX), 53 firms – over 10% of all U.S. S&P 500 firms – were disclosing pro forma earnings in a potentially misleading manner. This was being done most commonly by using traditional GAAP terminology (e.g., “net incomeâ€\x9D) in the press release headline to describe what was later in the press release revealed to be a pro forma amount (i.e., “net income excluding special itemsâ€\x9D). By 2003 (subsequent to the SEC regulation), potentially misleading disclosure practices were seen in less than 1% of the earnings press releases of S&P 500 firms. This significant reduction suggests that managers, prior to the regulation, were either careless in their pro forma reporting practice, or were intentionally – and unethically – attempting to mislead investors. Either way, we conclude that the SEC regulation was both necessary and effective. Copyright Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2006

Suggested Citation

  • Gary Entwistle & Glenn Feltham & Chima Mbagwu, 2006. "Misleading Disclosure of Pro Forma Earnings: An Empirical Examination," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 69(4), pages 355-372, December.
    • Handle: RePEc:kap:jbuset:v:69:y:2006:i:4:p:355-372
    DOI: 10.1007/s10551-006-9095-4
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Bhattacharya, Nilabhra & Black, Ervin L. & Christensen, Theodore E. & Larson, Chad R., 2003. "Assessing the relative informativeness and permanence of pro forma earnings and GAAP operating earnings," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 36(1-3), pages 285-319, December.
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    2. Ivan Bozhikin & Nikolay Dentchev, 2018. "Discovering a Wilderness of Regulatory Mechanisms for Corporate Social Responsibility: Literature Review," Economic Alternatives, University of National and World Economy, Sofia, Bulgaria, issue 2, pages 145-174, June.
    3. David Hillier & Allan Hodgson & Peta Stevenson-Clarke & Suntharee Lhaopadchan, 2008. "Accounting Window Dressing and Template Regulation: A Case Study of the Australian Credit Union Industry," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 83(3), pages 579-593, December.
    4. Steven Young, 2014. "The drivers, consequences and policy implications of non-GAAP earnings reporting," Accounting and Business Research, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 44(4), pages 444-465, August.
    5. Jeffrey Miller, 2009. "Opportunistic Disclosures of Earnings Forecasts and Non-GAAP Earnings Measures," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 89(1), pages 3-10, May.
    6. Sascha B. Herr & Peter Lorson & Jochen Pilhofer, 2022. "Alternative Performance Measures: A Structured Literature Review of Research in Academic and Professional Journals," Schmalenbach Journal of Business Research, Springer, vol. 74(3), pages 389-451, September.
    7. Amber Johnson & Majella Percy & Peta Stevenson-Clarke & Robyn Cameron, 2014. "The Impact of the Disclosure of Non-GAAP Earnings in Australian Annual Reports on Non-Sophisticated Users," Australian Accounting Review, CPA Australia, vol. 24(3), pages 207-217, September.
    8. Silvia Gardini & F. Marta L. Di Lascio & Franco Visani, 2017. "Opportunism in disclosing pro-forma indicators: rationale and contextual drivers," BEMPS - Bozen Economics & Management Paper Series BEMPS42, Faculty of Economics and Management at the Free University of Bozen.
    9. Dilla, William N. & Janvrin, Diane J. & Jeffrey, Cynthia, 2014. "Pro forma accounting disclosures: The effect of reconciliations and financial reporting knowledge on nonprofessional investors' judgments," Advances in accounting, Elsevier, vol. 30(1), pages 43-54.

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