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Environmental Impact and Levelised Cost of Energy Analysis of Solar Photovoltaic Systems in Selected Asia Pacific Region: A Cradle-to-Grave Approach

Author

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  • Norasikin Ahmad Ludin

    (Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia)

  • Nurfarhana Alyssa Ahmad Affandi

    (Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia)

  • Kathleen Purvis-Roberts

    (W.M. Keck Science Department, Claremont McKenna, Pitzer, and Scripps Colleges, Claremont, CA 91711, USA)

  • Azah Ahmad

    (Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA), Putrajaya 62100, Malaysia)

  • Mohd Adib Ibrahim

    (Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia)

  • Kamaruzzaman Sopian

    (Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia)

  • Sufian Jusoh

    (Institute of Malaysian and International Studies (IKMAS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia)

Abstract

Sustainability has been greatly impacted by the reality of budgets and available resources as a targeted range of carbon emission reduction greatly increases due to climate change. This study analyses the technical and economic feasibility for three types of solar photovoltaic (PV) renewable energy (RE) systems; (i) solar stand-alone, a non-grid-connected building rooftop-mounted structure, (ii) solar rooftop, a grid-connected building rooftop-mounted structure, (iii) solar farm, a grid-connected land-mounted structure in three tropical climate regions. Technical scientific and economic tools, including life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost assessment (LCCA) with an integrated framework from a Malaysian case study were applied to similar climatic regions, Thailand, and Indonesia. The short-term, future scaled-up scenario was defined using a proxy technology and estimated data. Environmental locations for this scenario were identified, the environmental impacts were compared, and the techno-economic output were analysed. The scope of this study is cradle-to-grave. Levelised cost of energy (LCOE) was greatly affected due to PV performance degradation rate, especially the critical shading issues for large-scale installations. Despite the land use impact, increased CO 2 emissions accumulate over time with regard to energy mix of the country, which requires the need for long-term procurement of both carbon and investment return. With regards to profitably, grid-connected roof-mounted systems achieve the lowest LCOE as compared to other types of installation, ranging from 0.0491 USD/kWh to 0.0605 USD/kWh under a 6% discounted rate. A simple payback (SPB) time between 7–10 years on average depends on annual power generated by the system with estimated energy payback of 0.40–0.55 years for common polycrystalline photovoltaic technology. Thus, maintaining the whole system by ensuring a low degradation rate of 0.2% over a long period of time is essential to generate benefits for both investors and the environment. Emerging technologies are progressing at an exponential rate in order to fill the gap of establishing renewable energy as an attractive business plan. Life cycle assessment is considered an excellent tool to assess the environmental impact of renewable energy.

Suggested Citation

  • Norasikin Ahmad Ludin & Nurfarhana Alyssa Ahmad Affandi & Kathleen Purvis-Roberts & Azah Ahmad & Mohd Adib Ibrahim & Kamaruzzaman Sopian & Sufian Jusoh, 2021. "Environmental Impact and Levelised Cost of Energy Analysis of Solar Photovoltaic Systems in Selected Asia Pacific Region: A Cradle-to-Grave Approach," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(1), pages 1-21, January.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:13:y:2021:i:1:p:396-:d:474572
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    2. Guillermo Almonacid-Olleros & Gabino Almonacid & David Gil & Javier Medina-Quero, 2022. "Evaluation of Transfer Learning and Fine-Tuning to Nowcast Energy Generation of Photovoltaic Systems in Different Climates," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(5), pages 1-15, March.
    3. Cyril Anak John & Lian See Tan & Jully Tan & Peck Loo Kiew & Azmi Mohd Shariff & Hairul Nazirah Abdul Halim, 2021. "Selection of Renewable Energy in Rural Area Via Life Cycle Assessment-Analytical Hierarchy Process (LCA-AHP): A Case Study of Tatau, Sarawak," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(21), pages 1-18, October.
    4. Junedi, M.M. & Ludin, N.A. & Hamid, N.H. & Kathleen, P.R. & Hasila, J. & Ahmad Affandi, N.A., 2022. "Environmental and economic performance assessment of integrated conventional solar photovoltaic and agrophotovoltaic systems," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 168(C).
    5. Musong L. Katche & Augustine B. Makokha & Siagi O. Zachary & Muyiwa S. Adaramola, 2023. "A Comprehensive Review of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Techniques Used in Solar PV Systems," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(5), pages 1-23, February.
    6. Jakub Stolarski & Ewelina Olba-Zięty & Mariusz Jerzy Stolarski, 2024. "Economic Analysis of Renewable Energy Generation from a Multi-Energy Installation in a Single-Family House," Energies, MDPI, vol. 17(24), pages 1-21, December.
    7. Dariusz Kurz & Damian Głuchy & Michał Filipiak & Dawid Ostrowski, 2023. "Technical and Economic Analysis of the Use of Electricity Generated by a BIPV System for an Educational Establishment in Poland," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(18), pages 1-23, September.
    8. Chun-Nan Chen & Chun-Ting Yang, 2021. "The Investability of PV Systems under Descending Feed-In Tariffs: Taiwan Case," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(9), pages 1-13, May.
    9. Fernando del Ama Gonzalo & Belen Moreno Santamaria & José Antonio Ferrándiz Gea & Matthew Griffin & Juan A. Hernandez Ramos, 2021. "Zero Energy Building Economic and Energetic Assessment with Simulated and Real Data Using Photovoltaics and Water Flow Glazing," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(11), pages 1-20, June.
    10. Hamoud Alafnan, 2024. "The Impact of PV Panel Degradation Rate, Initial System Efficiency, and Interest Rate on the Levelized Cost of Energy for PV Projects: Saudi Arabia as a Benchmark," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 16(22), pages 1-20, November.
    11. Ting Wang & Qiya Wang & Caiqing Zhang, 2021. "Research on the Optimal Operation of a Novel Renewable Multi-Energy Complementary System in Rural Areas," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(4), pages 1-16, February.
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