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Soil Diversity (Pedodiversity) and Ecosystem Services

Author

Listed:
  • Elena A. Mikhailova

    (Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA)

  • Hamdi A. Zurqani

    (Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
    Department of Soil and Water Sciences, University of Tripoli, Tripoli 13538, Libya)

  • Christopher J. Post

    (Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA)

  • Mark A. Schlautman

    (Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, SC 29625, USA)

  • Gregory C. Post

    (Economics Department, Reed College, Portland, OR 97202, USA)

Abstract

Soil ecosystem services (ES) (e.g., provisioning, regulation/maintenance, and cultural) and ecosystem disservices (ED) are dependent on soil diversity/pedodiversity (variability of soils), which needs to be accounted for in the economic analysis and business decision-making. The concept of pedodiversity (biotic + abiotic) is highly complex and can be broadly interpreted because it is formed from the interaction of atmospheric diversity (abiotic + biotic), biodiversity (biotic), hydrodiversity (abiotic + biotic), and lithodiversity (abiotic) within ecosphere and anthroposphere. Pedodiversity is influenced by intrinsic (within the soil) and extrinsic (outside soil) factors, which are also relevant to ES/ED. Pedodiversity concepts and measures may need to be adapted to the ES framework and business applications. Currently, there are four main approaches to analyze pedodiversity: taxonomic (diversity of soil classes), genetic (diversity of genetic horizons), parametric (diversity of soil properties), and functional (soil behavior under different uses). The objective of this article is to illustrate the application of pedodiversity concepts and measures to value ES/ED with examples based on the contiguous United States (U.S.), its administrative units, and the systems of soil classification (e.g., U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Taxonomy, Soil Survey Geographic (SSURGO) Database). This study is based on a combination of original research and literature review examples. Taxonomic pedodiversity in the contiguous U.S. exhibits high soil diversity, with 11 soil orders, 65 suborders, 317 great groups, 2026 subgroups, and 19,602 series. The ranking of “soil order abundance” (area of each soil order within the U.S.) expressed as the proportion of the total area is: (1) Mollisols (27%), (2) Alfisols (17%), (3) Entisols (14%), (4) Inceptisols and Aridisols (11% each), (5) Spodosols (3%), (6) Vertisols (2%), and (7) Histosols and Andisols (1% each). Taxonomic, genetic, parametric, and functional pedodiversity are an essential context for analyzing, interpreting, and reporting ES/ED within the ES framework. Although each approach can be used separately, three of these approaches (genetic, parametric, and functional) fall within the “umbrella” of taxonomic pedodiversity, which separates soils based on properties important to potential use. Extrinsic factors play a major role in pedodiversity and should be accounted for in ES/ED valuation based on various databases (e.g., National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP) databases). Pedodiversity is crucial in identifying soil capacity (pedocapacity) and “hotspots” of ES/ED as part of business decision making to provide more sustainable use of soil resources. Pedodiversity is not a static construct but is highly dynamic, and various human activities (e.g., agriculture, urbanization) can lead to soil degradation and even soil extinction.

Suggested Citation

  • Elena A. Mikhailova & Hamdi A. Zurqani & Christopher J. Post & Mark A. Schlautman & Gregory C. Post, 2021. "Soil Diversity (Pedodiversity) and Ecosystem Services," Land, MDPI, vol. 10(3), pages 1-34, March.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jlands:v:10:y:2021:i:3:p:288-:d:515398
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    Cited by:

    1. Elena A. Mikhailova & Lili Lin & Zhenbang Hao & Hamdi A. Zurqani & Christopher J. Post & Mark A. Schlautman & Gregory C. Post & George B. Shepherd, 2022. "Conflicts of Interest and Emissions from Land Conversions: State of New Jersey as a Case Study," Geographies, MDPI, vol. 2(4), pages 1-22, November.
    2. Elena A. Mikhailova & Hamdi A. Zurqani & Lili Lin & Zhenbang Hao & Christopher J. Post & Mark A. Schlautman & George B. Shepherd, 2023. "Opportunities for Monitoring Soil and Land Development to Support United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A Case Study of the United States of America (USA)," Land, MDPI, vol. 12(10), pages 1-23, September.
    3. Philip C. Hutton & Elena A. Mikhailova & Lili Lin & Zhenbang Hao & Hamdi A. Zurqani & Christopher J. Post & Mark A. Schlautman & George B. Shepherd, 2022. "Net-Zero Target and Emissions from Land Conversions: A Case Study of Maryland’s Climate Solutions Now Act," Geographies, MDPI, vol. 3(1), pages 1-20, December.
    4. Guillaume Jacek & Anne Rozan & Isabelle Combroux, 2022. "Are Mechanical and Biological Techniques Efficient in Restoring Soil and Associated Biodiversity in a Brownfield Site?," Land, MDPI, vol. 11(12), pages 1-20, November.
    5. Elena A. Mikhailova & Hamdi A. Zurqani & Lili Lin & Zhenbang Hao & Christopher J. Post & Mark A. Schlautman & Gregory C. Post & George B. Shepherd & Renee M. Dixon, 2023. "Quantifying Damages to Soil Health and Emissions from Land Development in the State of Illinois (USA)," Land, MDPI, vol. 12(8), pages 1-21, August.
    6. Xiang Fan & Yanjun Guan & Zhongke Bai & Wei Zhou & Chuxin Zhu, 2022. "Optimization of Reclamation Measures in a Mining Area by Analysis of Variations in Soil Nutrient Grades under Different Types of Land Usage—A Case Study of Pingshuo Coal Mine, China," Land, MDPI, vol. 11(3), pages 1-19, February.
    7. Elena A. Mikhailova & Lili Lin & Zhenbang Hao & Hamdi A. Zurqani & Christopher J. Post & Mark A. Schlautman & Gregory C. Post, 2022. "Massachusetts Roadmap to Net Zero: Accounting for Ownership of Soil Carbon Regulating Ecosystem Services and Land Conversions," Laws, MDPI, vol. 11(2), pages 1-19, March.
    8. Elena A. Mikhailova & Lili Lin & Zhenbang Hao & Hamdi A. Zurqani & Christopher J. Post & Mark A. Schlautman & Gregory C. Post, 2022. "Contribution of Land Cover Conversions to Connecticut (USA) Carbon Footprint," Geographies, MDPI, vol. 2(2), pages 1-17, May.
    9. Elena A. Mikhailova & Hamdi A. Zurqani & Christopher J. Post & Mark A. Schlautman & Gregory C. Post & Lili Lin & Zhenbang Hao, 2021. "Soil Carbon Regulating Ecosystem Services in the State of South Carolina, USA," Land, MDPI, vol. 10(3), pages 1-19, March.

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