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How Has COVID-19 Affected Mental Health and Lifestyle Behaviors after 2 Years? The Third Step of a Longitudinal Study of Italian Citizens

Author

Listed:
  • Cristina Mazza

    (Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy)

  • Eleonora Ricci

    (Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy)

  • Marco Colasanti

    (Department of Psychological, Health and Territorial Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy)

  • Alessandra Cardinale

    (Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy)

  • Francesca Bosco

    (Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy)

  • Silvia Biondi

    (Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy)

  • Renata Tambelli

    (Department of Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, and Health Studies, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy)

  • Alberto Di Domenico

    (Department of Psychological, Health and Territorial Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy)

  • Maria Cristina Verrocchio

    (Department of Psychological, Health and Territorial Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy)

  • Paolo Roma

    (Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy)

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic and its protective measures had a tremendous effect on the general population’s mental health and deeply affected their lifestyle. The present study carried out a longitudinal analysis to evaluate the long-lasting psychological effects of the pandemic and its impact on the general population’s day-to-day routine. Three points in time were considered: the initial period of the lockdown (T1; n = 2766; March 2020), the final period of the lockdown (T2; n = 439; May 2020) and two years after the lockdown (T3; n = 268; July 2022). Frequency analyses were carried out to examine which behavioral changes were maintained following the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown; furthermore, a repeated measures ANOVA test was run to measure differences in depression, stress, and anxiety levels between the three periods considered; lastly, multivariable ordinal logistic regression analyses were carried out to examine which variables were associated with psychological distress more than two years after the lockdown. The results highlighted that depression at T3 was associated with depression at T2 and negative affect, whereas stress at T3 was associated with stress at T2 and detachment. The psychological effects and lifestyle changes are also discussed.

Suggested Citation

  • Cristina Mazza & Eleonora Ricci & Marco Colasanti & Alessandra Cardinale & Francesca Bosco & Silvia Biondi & Renata Tambelli & Alberto Di Domenico & Maria Cristina Verrocchio & Paolo Roma, 2022. "How Has COVID-19 Affected Mental Health and Lifestyle Behaviors after 2 Years? The Third Step of a Longitudinal Study of Italian Citizens," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(1), pages 1-16, December.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:20:y:2022:i:1:p:759-:d:1021437
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Margolis, Jesse & Hockenberry, Jason & Grossman, Michael & Chou, Shin-Yi, 2014. "Moral Hazard and Less Invasive Medical Treatment for Coronary Artery Disease: The Case of Cigarette Smoking," IZA Discussion Papers 8492, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    2. Cho, Hyunkuk & Kwon, Jihyeon, 2021. "Pandemic and hospital avoidance: Evidence from the 2015 Middle East respiratory syndrome outbreak in South Korea," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 203(C).
    3. Cristina González-Monroy & Irene Gómez-Gómez & Cristian M. Olarte-Sánchez & Emma Motrico, 2021. "Eating Behaviour Changes during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(21), pages 1-24, October.
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