IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jijerp/v17y2020i22p8578-d447384.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

The Psychological Consequences of COVID-19 and Lockdown in the Spanish Population: An Exploratory Sequential Design

Author

Listed:
  • María Dolores Hidalgo

    (Department of Basic Psychology and Methodology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain)

  • Nekane Balluerka

    (Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, and Research Methods, Faculty of Psychology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 20018 Donostia, Spain)

  • Arantxa Gorostiaga

    (Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, and Research Methods, Faculty of Psychology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 20018 Donostia, Spain)

  • José Pedro Espada

    (Department of Health Psychology, Faculty of Social Health Sciences, Miguel Hernández University, 03202 Elche, Spain)

  • Miguel Ángel Santed

    (Department of Personality Psychology, Psychological Assessment and Treatment, Faculty of Psychology, National Distance Education University (UNED), 28040 Madrid, Spain)

  • José Luis Padilla

    (Department of Methodology for Behavioural Science, Faculty of Psychology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain)

  • Juana Gómez-Benito

    (Department of Social Psychology and Quantitative Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
    Group on Measurement Invariance and Analysis of Change (GEIMAC), Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain)

Abstract

The objectives of this study were to analyze the psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdown in the Spanish population and to identify what population profiles were most affected. The study used a sequential exploratory design. In the qualitative phase, 40 participants were recruited based on theoretically relevant criteria and the saturation of the information provided by the interviews. In the quantitative phase, a large representative sample was applied. The universe considered was the adult population of Spain. A total of 6789 surveys were conducted. Both the analysis of the narratives of the interviews and the responses to the panel survey showed relevant changes in attitudes and mood swings compared to the period prior to lockdown. These changes include dysphoric moods (i.e., experiences of distress such as sadness/depression, anxiety, rage, feeling of unreality, worry, etc.) and also some euphoric moods (i.e., feelings of well-being, happiness, etc.). A higher number of women were affected than men and a greater increase was observed in younger people. The findings of the study may serve as a basis for detecting needs and providing psychological support, as the symptoms detected as the most common are key for the processes of screening at-risk individuals.

Suggested Citation

  • María Dolores Hidalgo & Nekane Balluerka & Arantxa Gorostiaga & José Pedro Espada & Miguel Ángel Santed & José Luis Padilla & Juana Gómez-Benito, 2020. "The Psychological Consequences of COVID-19 and Lockdown in the Spanish Population: An Exploratory Sequential Design," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(22), pages 1-17, November.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:17:y:2020:i:22:p:8578-:d:447384
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/22/8578/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/22/8578/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Hong Yan Li & Hui Cao & Doris Y. P. Leung & Yim Wah Mak, 2020. "The Psychological Impacts of a COVID-19 Outbreak on College Students in China: A Longitudinal Study," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(11), pages 1-11, June.
    2. Cuiyan Wang & Riyu Pan & Xiaoyang Wan & Yilin Tan & Linkang Xu & Cyrus S. Ho & Roger C. Ho, 2020. "Immediate Psychological Responses and Associated Factors during the Initial Stage of the 2019 Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Epidemic among the General Population in China," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(5), pages 1-25, March.
    3. Estrella Romero & Laura López-Romero & Beatriz Domínguez-Álvarez & Paula Villar & Jose Antonio Gómez-Fraguela, 2020. "Testing the Effects of COVID-19 Confinement in Spanish Children: The Role of Parents’ Distress, Emotional Problems and Specific Parenting," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(19), pages 1-23, September.
    4. Lee, Sing & Chan, Lydia Y.Y. & Chau, Annie M.Y. & Kwok, Kathleen P.S. & Kleinman, Arthur, 2005. "The experience of SARS-related stigma at Amoy Gardens," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 61(9), pages 2038-2046, November.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Christian R. Mejia & Bertha Farfán & Jorge A. Figueroa-Tarrillo & Kely Palomino & César Johan Pereira-Victorio & Virgilio E. Failoc-Rojas & Mario J. Valladares-Garrido, 2023. "Factors Associated with Perceived Change in Weight, Physical Activity, and Food Consumption during the COVID-19 Lockdown in Latin America," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(3), pages 1-13, January.
    2. Royce Anders & Florian Lecuelle & Clément Perrin & Swann Ruyter & Patricia Franco & Stéphanie Huguelet & Benjamin Putois, 2021. "The Interaction between Lockdown-Specific Conditions and Family-Specific Variables Explains the Presence of Child Insomnia during COVID-19: A Key Response to the Current Debate," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(23), pages 1-19, November.
    3. Maila D. H. Rahiem & Steven Eric Krauss & Robin Ersing, 2021. "Perceived Consequences of Extended Social Isolation on Mental Well-Being: Narratives from Indonesian University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(19), pages 1-20, October.
    4. Seulkee Heo & Miraj U. Desai & Sarah R. Lowe & Michelle L. Bell, 2021. "Impact of Changed Use of Greenspace during COVID-19 Pandemic on Depression and Anxiety," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(11), pages 1-18, May.
    5. Laila Skogstad & Inger Schou-Bredal & Tore Bonsaksen & Trond Heir & Øivind Ekeberg & Tine Grimholt, 2021. "Concerns Related to the COVID-19 in Adult Norwegians during the First Outbreak in 2020: A Qualitative Approach," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(8), pages 1-14, April.
    6. Aviana O. Rosen & Ashley L. Holmes & Nekane Balluerka & Maria Dolores Hidalgo & Arantxa Gorostiaga & Juana Gómez-Benito & Tania B. Huedo-Medina, 2022. "Is Social Media a New Type of Social Support? Social Media Use in Spain during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Mixed Methods Study," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(7), pages 1-20, March.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Christoph Lindner & Ibolya Kotta & Eszter Eniko Marschalko & Kinga Szabo & Kinga Kalcza-Janosi & Jan Retelsdorf, 2022. "Increased Risk Perception, Distress Intolerance and Health Anxiety in Stricter Lockdowns: Self-Control as a Key Protective Factor in Early Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(9), pages 1-22, April.
    2. Lucía del Río-Casanova & Milagrosa Sánchez-Martín & Ana García-Dantas & Anabel González-Vázquez & Ania Justo, 2021. "Psychological Responses According to Gender during the Early Stage of COVID-19 in Spain," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(7), pages 1-20, April.
    3. Xi Wang & Yuntao Zou, 2023. "Psychological Research of College Students Based on Online Education under COVID-19," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(2), pages 1-19, January.
    4. Rosa Bosch & Mireia Pagerols & Raquel Prat & Gemma Español-Martín & Cristina Rivas & Montserrat Dolz & Josep Maria Haro & Josep Antoni Ramos-Quiroga & Marta Ribasés & Miquel Casas, 2022. "Changes in the Mental Health of Children and Adolescents during the COVID-19 Lockdown: Associated Factors and Life Conditions," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(7), pages 1-17, March.
    5. Annunziata Romeo & Agata Benfante & Lorys Castelli & Marialaura Di Tella, 2021. "Psychological Distress among Italian University Students Compared to General Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(5), pages 1-8, March.
    6. Stephen X. Zhang & Hao Huang & Jizhen Li & Mayra Antonelli-Ponti & Scheila Farias de Paiva & José Aparecido da Silva, 2021. "Predictors of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms in Brazil during COVID-19," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(13), pages 1-10, June.
    7. Liliana Dumitrache & Elena Stănculescu & Mariana Nae & Daniela Dumbrăveanu & Gabriel Simion & Ana Maria Taloș & Alina Mareci, 2021. "Post-Lockdown Effects on Students’ Mental Health in Romania: Perceived Stress, Missing Daily Social Interactions, and Boredom Proneness," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(16), pages 1-17, August.
    8. Nelson C. Y. Yeung & Bishan Huang & Christine Y. K. Lau & Joseph T. F. Lau, 2020. "Feeling Anxious amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: Psychosocial Correlates of Anxiety Symptoms among Filipina Domestic Helpers in Hong Kong," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(21), pages 1-15, November.
    9. Stéphanie Bourion-Bédès & Hélène Rousseau & Martine Batt & Pascale Tarquinio & Romain Lebreuilly & Christine Sorsana & Karine Legrand & Rabah Machane & Cyril Tarquinio & Cédric Baumann, 2022. "Mental Health Status of French School-Aged Children’s Parents during the COVID-19 Lockdown and Its Associated Factors," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(17), pages 1-13, September.
    10. Elisabet Sánchez-Rodríguez & Alexandra Ferreira-Valente & Filipa Pimenta & Antonella Ciaramella & Jordi Miró, 2022. "Mental, Physical and Socio-Economic Status of Adults Living in Spain during the Late Stages of the State of Emergency Caused by COVID-19," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(2), pages 1-14, January.
    11. Rafat Ghanamah & Hazar Eghbaria-Ghanamah, 2021. "Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Behavioral and Emotional Aspects and Daily Routines of Arab Israeli Children," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(6), pages 1-18, March.
    12. Rachele Mariani & Alessia Renzi & Cinzia Di Monte & Elena Petrovska & Michela Di Trani, 2021. "The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Primary Emotional Systems and Emotional Regulation," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(11), pages 1-8, May.
    13. Paula Rodríguez-Fernández & Josefa González-Santos & Mirian Santamaría-Peláez & Raúl Soto-Cámara & Jerónimo J. González-Bernal, 2021. "Exploring the Occupational Balance of Young Adults during Social Distancing Measures in the COVID-19 Pandemic," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(11), pages 1-9, May.
    14. David N. Sattler & Boldsuren Bishkhorloo & Kendall A. Lawley & Ruth Hackler & Chuluunbileg Byambajav & Michidmaa Munkhbat & Brooklyn Smith-Galeno, 2023. "Stigma, Post-traumatic Stress, and COVID-19 Vaccination Intent in Mongolia, India, and the United States," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(3), pages 1-12, January.
    15. Ying Guo & Hongyu Zhang & Yufei Xie & Xin Tian & Na Luo & Yan Zhang, 2022. "A Cross-Sectional Survey of National Chinese College Students’ Mental Status during COVID-19 Pandemic: Using a Compiled Stress Response Questionnaire," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(19), pages 1-13, September.
    16. Roberto Mazzola & Matteo Bozzi & Italo Testa & Susanna Sancassani & Maurizio Zani, 2023. "An Extensive Questionnaire about Metacognition during Emergency Remote Teaching Involving More Than 3000 Engineering Students," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(3), pages 1-11, January.
    17. Hugh McCall & Janine Beahm & Caeleigh Landry & Ziyin Huang & R. Nicholas Carleton & Heather Hadjistavropoulos, 2020. "How Have Public Safety Personnel Seeking Digital Mental Healthcare Been Affected by the COVID-19 Pandemic? An Exploratory Mixed Methods Study," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(24), pages 1-11, December.
    18. J. Pierre Zila-Velasque & Pamela Grados-Espinoza & Naomi Coba-Villan & Jocelyn Quispe-Chamorro & Yesenia F. Taipe-Guillén & Estefany Pacheco & Laura Ccasa-Valero & Virgilio E. Failoc-Rojas & Cristian , 2022. "Mental Disorders and Level of Resilience in Eight High-Altitude Cities of Peru during the Second Pandemic Wave: A Multicenter Population-Based Study," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(1), pages 1-19, December.
    19. Hee-Kyung Kim, 2022. "In the COVID-19 Era, Effects of Job Stress, Coping Strategies, Meaning in Life and Resilience on Psychological Well-Being of Women Workers in the Service Sector," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(16), pages 1-15, August.
    20. Isabel Mercader Rubio & Pilar Sánchez-López & Nieves Gutiérrez Ángel & Nieves Fátima Oropesa Ruiz, 2022. "Psychological Consequences of Fear of COVID-19: Symptom Analysis of Triggered Anxiety and Depression Disorders in Adolescents and Young Adults," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(21), pages 1-8, October.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:17:y:2020:i:22:p:8578-:d:447384. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.