IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/riibaf/v50y2019icp153-170.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Female directors, earnings management, and CEO incentive compensation: UK evidence

Author

Listed:
  • Harakeh, Mostafa
  • El-Gammal, Walid
  • Matar, Ghida

Abstract

This study examines the effect of the exogenous increase in the presence of female directors on FTSE350 corporate boards in the UK, as mandated by the Davies Report (2011), on the association between earnings management and CEO incentive compensation. We use a hand-collected dataset of FTSE350 UK public companies between 2007 and 2015. The empirical design used is a difference-in-differences methodology where the treatment group is gender-diverse corporate boards and the control group is corporate boards that lack gender diversity. We use two measures of gender diversity that include executive and non-executive female directors. The results show a positive association between earnings management and CEO incentive compensation, and a negative association between female directors and earnings management. Moreover, the results suggest a negative effect for the presence of female directors on CEO incentive compensation. Finally, the main finding of the study is that female directors play a moderating role on the association between earnings management and CEO incentive compensation. Overall, we show some of the economic consequences that the increased presence of female directors on corporate boards carries to public firms.

Suggested Citation

  • Harakeh, Mostafa & El-Gammal, Walid & Matar, Ghida, 2019. "Female directors, earnings management, and CEO incentive compensation: UK evidence," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 50(C), pages 153-170.
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:riibaf:v:50:y:2019:i:c:p:153-170
    DOI: 10.1016/j.ribaf.2019.05.001
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0275531918310535
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.ribaf.2019.05.001?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Bin Srinidhi & Ferdinand A. Gul & Judy Tsui, 2011. "Female Directors and Earnings Quality," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 28(5), pages 1610-1644, December.
    2. Gong, Guojin & Li, Laura Yue & Yin, Huifang, 2019. "Relative performance evaluation and the timing of earnings release," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 67(2), pages 358-386.
    3. Renee B. Adams & Benjamin E. Hermalin & Michael S. Weisbach, 2010. "The Role of Boards of Directors in Corporate Governance: A Conceptual Framework and Survey," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 48(1), pages 58-107, March.
    4. Bill Francis & Iftekhar Hasan & Jong Chool Park & Qiang Wu, 2015. "Gender Differences in Financial Reporting Decision Making: Evidence from Accounting Conservatism," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 32(3), pages 1285-1318, September.
    5. Keith L. Jones & Gopal V. Krishnan & Kevin D. Melendrez, 2008. "Do Models of Discretionary Accruals Detect Actual Cases of Fraudulent and Restated Earnings? An Empirical Analysis," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 25(2), pages 499-531, June.
    6. Arun, Thankom Gopinath & Almahrog, Yousf Ebrahem & Ali Aribi, Zakaria, 2015. "Female directors and earnings management: Evidence from UK companies," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 39(C), pages 137-146.
    7. Simon Ho & Annie Li & Kinsun Tam & Feida Zhang, 2015. "CEO Gender, Ethical Leadership, and Accounting Conservatism," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 127(2), pages 351-370, March.
    8. Dah, Mustafa A. & Frye, Melissa B., 2017. "Is board compensation excessive?," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 45(C), pages 566-585.
    9. Jensen, Michael C. & Meckling, William H., 1976. "Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 3(4), pages 305-360, October.
    10. Jeremy C. Stein, 1989. "Efficient Capital Markets, Inefficient Firms: A Model of Myopic Corporate Behavior," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 104(4), pages 655-669.
    11. Bernile, Gennaro & Bhagwat, Vineet & Yonker, Scott, 2018. "Board diversity, firm risk, and corporate policies," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 127(3), pages 588-612.
    12. Usman, Muhammad & Zhang, Junrui & Farooq, Muhammad Umar & Makki, Muhammad Abdul Majid & Dong, Nanyan, 2018. "Female directors and CEO power," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 165(C), pages 44-47.
    13. Bebchuk, Lucian A. & Cremers, K.J. Martijn & Peyer, Urs C., 2011. "The CEO pay slice," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 102(1), pages 199-221, October.
    14. Peggy M. Lee & Erika Hayes James, 2007. "She'‐e‐os: gender effects and investor reactions to the announcements of top executive appointments," Strategic Management Journal, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 28(3), pages 227-241, March.
    15. Steven Kaplan & Kurt Pany & Janet Samuels & Jian Zhang, 2009. "An Examination of the Association Between Gender and Reporting Intentions for Fraudulent Financial Reporting," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 87(1), pages 15-30, June.
    16. Mehran, Hamid, 1995. "Executive compensation structure, ownership, and firm performance," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 38(2), pages 163-184, June.
    17. Burcu Duygan-Bump & Patrick Parkinson & Eric Rosengren & Gustavo A. Suarez & Paul Willen, 2013. "How Effective Were the Federal Reserve Emergency Liquidity Facilities? Evidence from the Asset-Backed Commercial Paper Money Market Mutual Fund Liquidity Facility," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 68(2), pages 715-737, April.
    18. Dechow, Patricia & Ge, Weili & Schrand, Catherine, 2010. "Understanding earnings quality: A review of the proxies, their determinants and their consequences," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(2-3), pages 344-401, December.
    19. Roberts, Michael R. & Whited, Toni M., 2013. "Endogeneity in Empirical Corporate Finance1," Handbook of the Economics of Finance, in: G.M. Constantinides & M. Harris & R. M. Stulz (ed.), Handbook of the Economics of Finance, volume 2, chapter 0, pages 493-572, Elsevier.
    20. Sterling Huang & Gilles Hilary, 2018. "Zombie Board: Board Tenure and Firm Performance," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 56(4), pages 1285-1329, September.
    21. Steven Balsam, 1998. "Discretionary Accounting Choices and CEO Compensation," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 15(3), pages 229-252, September.
    22. García Lara, Juan Manuel & García Osma, Beatriz & Mora, Araceli & Scapin, Mariano, 2017. "The monitoring role of female directors over accounting quality," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 45(C), pages 651-668.
    23. Mary Ellen Carter & Francesca Franco & Mireia Gine, 2017. "Executive Gender Pay Gaps: The Roles of Female Risk Aversion and Board Representation," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 34(2), pages 1232-1264, June.
    24. Hermalin, Benjamin E & Weisbach, Michael S, 1998. "Endogenously Chosen Boards of Directors and Their Monitoring of the CEO," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 88(1), pages 96-118, March.
    25. Iacus, Stefano M. & King, Gary & Porro, Giuseppe, 2011. "Multivariate Matching Methods That Are Monotonic Imbalance Bounding," Journal of the American Statistical Association, American Statistical Association, vol. 106(493), pages 345-361.
    26. Jones, Jj, 1991. "Earnings Management During Import Relief Investigations," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 29(2), pages 193-228.
    27. Julia Grant & Garen Markarian & Antonio Parbonetti, 2009. "CEO Risk†Related Incentives and Income Smoothing," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 26(4), pages 1029-1065, December.
    28. Bugeja, Martin & Matolcsy, Zoltan P. & Spiropoulos, Helen, 2012. "Is there a gender gap in CEO compensation?," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 18(4), pages 849-859.
    29. Brad M. Barber & Terrance Odean, 2001. "Boys will be Boys: Gender, Overconfidence, and Common Stock Investment," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 116(1), pages 261-292.
    30. Kasznik, R, 1999. "On the association between voluntary disclosure and earnings management," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 37(1), pages 57-81.
    31. Gul, Ferdinand A. & Srinidhi, Bin & Ng, Anthony C., 2011. "Does board gender diversity improve the informativeness of stock prices?," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 51(3), pages 314-338, April.
    32. Jasmin Joecks & Kerstin Pull & Karin Vetter, 2013. "Gender Diversity in the Boardroom and Firm Performance: What Exactly Constitutes a “Critical Mass?”," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 118(1), pages 61-72, November.
    33. Burgstahler, David & Dichev, Ilia, 1997. "Earnings management to avoid earnings decreases and losses," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 24(1), pages 99-126, December.
    34. Cohen, Daniel A. & Zarowin, Paul, 2010. "Accrual-based and real earnings management activities around seasoned equity offerings," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(1), pages 2-19, May.
    35. Powell, Melanie & Ansic, David, 1997. "Gender differences in risk behaviour in financial decision-making: An experimental analysis," Journal of Economic Psychology, Elsevier, vol. 18(6), pages 605-628, November.
    36. Klein, April, 2002. "Audit committee, board of director characteristics, and earnings management," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 33(3), pages 375-400, August.
    37. Adams, Renée B. & Ferreira, Daniel, 2009. "Women in the boardroom and their impact on governance and performance," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 94(2), pages 291-309, November.
    38. Kenneth R. Ahern & Amy K. Dittmar, 2012. "The Changing of the Boards: The Impact on Firm Valuation of Mandated Female Board Representation," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 127(1), pages 137-197.
    39. Firth, Michael & Fung, Peter M.Y. & Rui, Oliver M., 2007. "How ownership and corporate governance influence chief executive pay in China's listed firms," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 60(7), pages 776-785, July.
    40. Timothy Conley & Silvia Gonçalves & Christian Hansen, 2018. "Inference with Dependent Data in Accounting and Finance Applications," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 56(4), pages 1139-1203, September.
    41. Connie L. Becker & Mark L. Defond & James Jiambalvo & K.R. Subramanyam, 1998. "The Effect of Audit Quality on Earnings Management," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 15(1), pages 1-24, March.
    42. Smirnova, Aleksandra S. & Zavertiaeva, Marina A., 2017. "Which came first, CEO compensation or firm performance? The causality dilemma in European companies," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 42(C), pages 658-673.
    43. Paul Hribar & Daniel W. Collins, 2002. "Errors in Estimating Accruals: Implications for Empirical Research," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 40(1), pages 105-134, March.
    44. Roychowdhury, Sugata, 2006. "Earnings management through real activities manipulation," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 42(3), pages 335-370, December.
    45. Marianne Bertrand & Kevin F. Hallock, 2001. "The Gender Gap in Top Corporate Jobs," ILR Review, Cornell University, ILR School, vol. 55(1), pages 3-21, October.
    46. Guidry, Flora & J. Leone, Andrew & Rock, Steve, 1999. "Earnings-based bonus plans and earnings management by business-unit managers1," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 26(1-3), pages 113-142, January.
    47. Gull, Ammar Ali & Nekhili, Mehdi & Nagati, Haithem & Chtioui, Tawhid, 2018. "Beyond gender diversity: How specific attributes of female directors affect earnings management," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 50(3), pages 255-274.
    48. Gaver, Jennifer J. & Gaver, Kenneth M. & Austin, Jeffrey R., 1995. "Additional evidence on bonus plans and income management," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 19(1), pages 3-28, February.
    49. Paul W. MacAvoy & Ira M. Millstein, 1999. "The Active Board Of Directors And Its Effect On The Performance Of The Large Publicly Traded Corporation," Journal of Applied Corporate Finance, Morgan Stanley, vol. 11(4), pages 8-20, January.
    50. Dimitras, Augustinos I. & Kyriakou, Maria I. & Iatridis, George, 2015. "Financial crisis, GDP variation and earnings management in Europe," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 34(C), pages 338-354.
    51. Richard A. Bernardi & Donald F. Arnold, 1997. "An Examination of Moral Development within Public Accounting by Gender, Staff Level, and Firm," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 14(4), pages 653-668, December.
    52. Harakeh, Mostafa & Lee, Edward & Walker, Martin, 2019. "The effect of information shocks on dividend payout and dividend value relevance," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 61(C), pages 82-96.
    53. repec:hal:journl:hal-02312045 is not listed on IDEAS
    54. Murphy, Kevin J., 1999. "Executive compensation," Handbook of Labor Economics, in: O. Ashenfelter & D. Card (ed.), Handbook of Labor Economics, edition 1, volume 3, chapter 38, pages 2485-2563, Elsevier.
    55. Cornett, Marcia Millon & Marcus, Alan J. & Tehranian, Hassan, 2008. "Corporate governance and pay-for-performance: The impact of earnings management," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 87(2), pages 357-373, February.
    56. Holthausen, Robert W. & Larcker, David F. & Sloan, Richard G., 1995. "Annual bonus schemes and the manipulation of earnings," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 19(1), pages 29-74, February.
    57. Healy, Paul M. & Kang, Sok-Hyon & Palepu, Krishna G., 1987. "The effect of accounting procedure changes on CEOs' cash salary and bonus compensation," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 9(1), pages 7-34, April.
    58. Gopal Krishnan & Linda Parsons, 2008. "Getting to the Bottom Line: An Exploration of Gender and Earnings Quality," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 78(1), pages 65-76, March.
    59. Mostafa Harakeh & Edward Lee & Martin Walker, 2019. "The Differential Impact of IFRS Adoption on Aspects of Seasoned Equity Offerings in the UK and France," Accounting in Europe, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 16(1), pages 106-138, January.
    60. Iacus, Stefano M. & King, Gary & Porro, Giuseppe, 2012. "Causal Inference without Balance Checking: Coarsened Exact Matching," Political Analysis, Cambridge University Press, vol. 20(1), pages 1-24, January.
    61. Coles, Jeffrey L. & Daniel, Naveen D. & Naveen, Lalitha, 2008. "Boards: Does one size fit all," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 87(2), pages 329-356, February.
    62. repec:eee:labchp:v:3:y:1999:i:pb:p:2485-2563 is not listed on IDEAS
    63. Healy, Paul M., 1985. "The effect of bonus schemes on accounting decisions," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 7(1-3), pages 85-107, April.
    64. Adhikari, Binay K. & Agrawal, Anup & Malm, James, 2019. "Do women managers keep firms out of trouble? Evidence from corporate litigation and policies," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 67(1), pages 202-225.
    65. Sila, Vathunyoo & Gonzalez, Angelica & Hagendorff, Jens, 2017. "Independent director reputation incentives and stock price informativeness," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 47(C), pages 219-235.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Harakeh, Mostafa & Leventis, Stergios & El Masri, Tarek & Tsileponis, Nikolaos, 2023. "The moderating role of board gender diversity on the relationship between firm opacity and stock returns," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 55(4).
    2. Peter-Mario Efesiri EFENYUMI & Emmanuel Ikechukwu OKOYE, 2023. "Do Financial Expertise, Nationality and Independence of Women on Corporate Board Mitigate Earnings Management of Listed Firms on NXG," International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), vol. 7(4), pages 1615-1626, April.
    3. Gu, Junjian, 2022. "Do at home as Romans do? CEO overseas experience and financial misconduct risk of emerging market firms," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 60(C).
    4. Nguyen Thi Hoa Hong & Nguyen Thai Anh & Nguyen Tran Viet Hoang & Do Nhat Minh, 2023. "Corporate governance, external financing, and earnings management: new evidence from an emerging market," Future Business Journal, Springer, vol. 9(1), pages 1-22, December.
    5. Elnahass, Marwa & Salama, Aly & Trinh, Vu Quang, 2022. "Firm valuations and board compensation: Evidence from alternative banking models," Global Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 51(C).
    6. Liao, Haojie & Wei, Yi & Wang, Yun & Lin, Yibin & Tan, RongYong, 2023. "Managerial ability and earnings management: The moderating role of career concerns✰," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 57(C).
    7. Grey, Colette & Flynn, Antoinette & Adu, Douglas A., 2024. "An examination of how executive remuneration and firm performance are influenced by Chair-CEO diversity attributes," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 94(C).
    8. Badar Nadeem Ashraf & Ningyu Qian, 2021. "The Impact of Board Internationalization on Real Earnings Management: Evidence From China," SAGE Open, , vol. 11(3), pages 21582440211, July.
    9. Zhang, Yuyang & Uchida, Konari & Dong, Liping, 2020. "External financing and earnings management: Evidence from international data," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 54(C).
    10. Yu-Hui Wang, 2020. "Does Board Gender Diversity Bring Better Financial and Governance Performances? An Empirical Investigation of Cases in Taiwan," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 12(8), pages 1-10, April.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Harakeh, Mostafa & Leventis, Stergios & El Masri, Tarek & Tsileponis, Nikolaos, 2023. "The moderating role of board gender diversity on the relationship between firm opacity and stock returns," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 55(4).
    2. Belaounia, Samia & Tao, Ran & Zhao, Hong, 2020. "Gender equality's impact on female directors’ efficacy: A multi-country study," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 29(5).
    3. Dechow, Patricia & Ge, Weili & Schrand, Catherine, 2010. "Understanding earnings quality: A review of the proxies, their determinants and their consequences," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(2-3), pages 344-401, December.
    4. Maria Strydom & Hue Hwa Au Yong & Michaela Rankin, 2017. "A few good (wo)men? Gender diversity on Australian boards," Australian Journal of Management, Australian School of Business, vol. 42(3), pages 404-427, August.
    5. García Lara, Juan Manuel & García Osma, Beatriz & Mora, Araceli & Scapin, Mariano, 2017. "The monitoring role of female directors over accounting quality," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 45(C), pages 651-668.
    6. Alaa Mansour Zalata & Collins Ntim & Ahmed Aboud & Ernest Gyapong, 2019. "Female CEOs and Core Earnings Quality: New Evidence on the Ethics Versus Risk-Aversion Puzzle," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 160(2), pages 515-534, December.
    7. Gull, Ammar Ali & Nekhili, Mehdi & Nagati, Haithem & Chtioui, Tawhid, 2018. "Beyond gender diversity: How specific attributes of female directors affect earnings management," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 50(3), pages 255-274.
    8. Goh, Lisa & Gupta, Aditi, 2016. "Remuneration of non-executive directors: Evidence from the UK," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 48(3), pages 379-399.
    9. Nguyen, Quynh & Kim, Maria H. & Ali, Searat, 2024. "Corporate governance and earnings management: Evidence from Vietnamese listed firms," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 89(PA), pages 775-801.
    10. Zalata, Alaa Mansour & Abdelfattah, Tarek, 2021. "Non-executive female directors and earnings management using classification shifting," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 134(C), pages 301-315.
    11. Dina El Mahdy & Fatima Alali, 2023. "Female CFOs and managerial opportunism," Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, Springer, vol. 60(3), pages 1161-1207, April.
    12. Nguyet T. M. Nguyen & Abdullah Iqbal & Radha K. Shiwakoti, 2022. "The context of earnings management and its ability to predict future stock returns," Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, Springer, vol. 59(1), pages 123-169, July.
    13. Jorge Farinha & Luis Filipe Viana, 2006. "Board structure and modified audit opinions: the case of the Portuguese Stock Exchange," CEF.UP Working Papers 0609, Universidade do Porto, Faculdade de Economia do Porto.
    14. Oyotode-Adebile, Renee & Hibbert, Ann Marie & Shankar, Siddharth, 2022. "The impact of gender-diverse board and institutional investors on accruals management," Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance, Elsevier, vol. 34(C).
    15. Li, Xiaochong & Li, Yanxi, 2020. "Female independent directors and financial irregularities in chinese listed firms: From the perspective of audit committee chairpersons," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 32(C).
    16. Hannu Schadewitz & Jonas Spohr, 2022. "Gender diverse boards and goodwill changes: association between accounting conservatism, gender and governance," Journal of Management & Governance, Springer;Accademia Italiana di Economia Aziendale (AIDEA), vol. 26(3), pages 757-779, September.
    17. Cao, Zhiyan & Upadhyay, Arun & Zeng, Hongchao, 2024. "Are all female directors equal? Incentives and effectiveness of female independent directors," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 162(C).
    18. Schopohl, Lisa & Urquhart, Andrew & Zhang, Hanxiong, 2021. "Female CFOs, leverage and the moderating role of board diversity and CEO power," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 71(C).
    19. Fan, Yaoyao & Jiang, Yuxiang & Zhang, Xuezhi & Zhou, Yue, 2019. "Women on boards and bank earnings management: From zero to hero," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 107(C), pages 1-1.
    20. Felix Schumann & Toni W. Thun & Tobias Dauth & Henning Zülch, 2024. "Does top management team diversity affect accounting quality? Empirical evidence from Germany," Journal of Management & Governance, Springer;Accademia Italiana di Economia Aziendale (AIDEA), vol. 28(1), pages 137-175, March.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:riibaf:v:50:y:2019:i:c:p:153-170. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ribaf .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.