STEM competencies, challenges, and measurements: a literature review

STEM education, encompassing science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, has evolved significantly due to technological and societal shifts. Integrated STEM and STEAM (adding arts) approaches are becoming more spoken, focusing on developing 21st-century skills like creativity and problem-solving. Although, from a broad perspective, integrated STE(A)M approaches are appealing and theoretically sound, their inconsistent definitions and operationalizations complicate curriculum design, evaluation, and scientific studies. The scarcity of research on STEM education, particularly in the European context, underscores the urgent need for more evidence-based practices. While international large-scale assessments could provide cross-country insights into STEM education, more well-designed studies are needed to understand the effectiveness of STEM and STEAM education, particularly in the European context. Promoting STEM research and securing adequate funding sources for such studies is essential to gaining a deeper understanding of STEM education and guiding its development based on more robust empirical foundations. Ultimately, such efforts will help shape a more effective and inclusive STEM education system responsive to the evolving demands of the modern workforce and society.