Paradata in Surveys

Paradata are widely used in conjunction with surveys, from predicting behavior for targeted interventions, monitoring data quality and interviewer performance, to understanding and correcting biases in the data. We define survey paradata broadly: as nonsubstantive data that relate to the survey and its processes in at least one of three ways—they are produced by survey processes, describe them, or are used to manage and evaluate them. They typically would not exist without the survey. They may be automatically produced (e.g., keystrokes), actively collected (e.g., interviewer observations), or constructed later on (e.g., when a human labeler rates respondent–interviewer rapport by listening to recordings). First, we review other data types (auxiliary, contextual, and metadata) because their overlaps with paradata can make it difficult to grasp paradata precisely. We discuss paradata definitions, including their weaknesses, arriving at our definition. Second, we offer an overview of our field’s practice and literature: paradata examples, heterogeneity across paradata types and design options, applications, and challenges. With paradata a somewhat mature concept in our field, survey methodology, we hope to provide a stimulating, broad introduction to practice and literature in our field, accessible to anyone irrespective of professional background. We hope that this chapter provides a valuable backdrop for the conceptualizations of paradata in other disciplines, as presented in this volume.