Theories and operationalizations

This chapter introduces psychometric cultural theories, which reduce cultural values to a few fundamental dimensions, thus offering an operationalization. Three models are explained in detail. First, G. Hofstede distinguishes between six cultural value dimensions: individualism-collectivism, acceptance of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity-femininity, long-term orientation, and indulgence. Second, the theory of universal cultural values by S. H. Schwartz distinguishes between ten value types as well as between individual-level and cultural-level values. Third, the GLOBE study presents nine cultural dimensions, measured as both values (how a society should be) and practices (how a society actually is). The chapter also presents recent developments in cross-cultural research, such as measuring culture at an individual level, refining the individualism/collectivism construct (e.g., interdependent vs. independent self), assessing whether cultural norms are strict or weak through a tight/loose approach, conducting multilevel analyses, and considering culture as an implicit theory (i.e., culture can be primed).