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The ABCs of nonfinancial defined contribution (NDC) schemes

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  • Robert Holzmann

Abstract

Nonfinancial defined contribution (NDC) pension schemes have been successfully implemented since the mid‐1990s in a number of European countries such as Italy, Latvia, Norway, Poland and Sweden. The NDC approach features the lifelong contribution–benefit link of a financial defined contribution (FDC) personal account scheme, but is based on the pay‐as‐you‐go (PAYG) format. At its start out, the PAYG commitments of the preceding defined benefit (DB) system are converted into individual personal accounts, allowing for a smooth transition from the DB to the DC format, while avoiding the very high transition costs inherent in a move from a traditional PAYG DB scheme to a fully funded FDC scheme. The NDC approach implemented by the rule book is able to manage the economic and demographic risks inherent to a pension scheme and, by design, creates financial sustainability. As in any pension scheme, the linchpin between financial stability and adequacy is the retirement age; in the NDC approach the individual retirement age above the minimum age is by design self‐selected and by incentives should increase the effective retirement age in line with population ageing. As a systemic reform approach NDC has become a strong competitor to piecemeal parametric reforms of traditional nonfinancial DB (NDB) schemes. While frequent, these reforms are far from transparent and usually too timid and too late to create financial sustainability while providing adequate pensions for the average contributor. This article offers a largely non‐technical introduction to NDC schemes, their basic elements and advantages over NDB schemes, the key technical frontiers of the approach, and the experiences of NDC countries. Depuis le milieu des années 1990, plusieurs pays d’Europe, notamment l’Italie, la Lettonie, la Norvège, la Pologne et la Suède, ont mis en place avec succès des régimes de retraite notionnels à cotisations définies. Les régimes de ce type empruntent aux régimes à cotisations définies financés par capitalisation l’établissement d’un lien entre les prestations perçues et les cotisations versées tout au long de la vie active, mais sont financés selon le principe de la répartition. Dans un premier temps, les engagements de retraite du régime à prestations définies financé par répartition déjà en place sont convertis en comptes individuels, ce qui permet de passer en douceur d’un modèle à prestations définies à un modèle à cotisations définies tout en évitant les coûts de transition très élevés qu’entraîne immanquablement le remplacement d’un régime à prestations définies traditionnel financé par répartition par un régime à cotisations définies entièrement financé par capitalisation. Lorsque les règles qui le régissent sont strictement appliquées, un régime en comptes notionnels permet de gérer les risques économiques et démographiques inhérents à tout régime de retraite et offre, par nature, une garantie de viabilité financière. Comme dans tout système de retraite, le principal curseur utilisé pour concilier stabilité financière et adéquation des prestations est l’âge de la retraite. Dans le cas d’un régime notionnel, au‐delà de l’âge légal de la retraite, l’âge effectif de départ en retraite est choisi par l’individu lui‐même, étant entendu que des mécanismes incitatifs doivent être introduits pour faire reculer cet âge effectif parallèlement au vieillissement de la population. Parce qu’elle constitue une approche systémique, la création de comptes notionnels fait désormais partie des pistes de réforme envisagées au même titre que les réformes paramétriques, partielles, des régimes à prestations définies traditionnels, financés par répartition. Ces réformes, pourtant fréquentes, manquent souvent de transparence et sont généralement trop timides et trop tardives pour assurer la viabilité financière du système tout en garantissant une pension adéquate au cotisant moyen. Cet article présente les régimes en comptes notionnels de manière relativement accessible. Il décrit leurs composantes de base et leurs avantages par rapport aux régimes à prestations définies par répartition, ainsi que leurs principales contraintes techniques. Il présente également des exemples de pays qui ont mis en place ces dispositifs. Los regímenes de pensiones de cotizaciones teóricas definidas se han implementado con éxito desde mediados de la década de 1990 en varios países europeos como Italia, Letonia, Noruega, Polonia y Suecia. El enfoque de cotizaciones teóricas definidas incluye el vínculo entre cotizaciones y prestaciones durante toda la vida de un régimen de cuentas individuales de cotizaciones definidas pero sobre la base del método del reparto. Al principio, los compromisos en términos del reparto del anterior sistema de prestaciones definidas se convierten en cuentas individuales y ello facilita la transición del modelo de prestaciones definidas al de cotizaciones definidas, al tiempo que elude los altísimos costos de la transición entre el régimen tradicional de reparto de prestaciones definidas y un régimen de capitalización total y de cotizaciones definidas. El enfoque de una aplicación normativa de un sistema de cotizaciones teóricas definidas permite gestionar los riesgos económicos y demográficos inherentes a un régimen de pensiones y, por su diseño, genera la sostenibilidad financiera. Como en cualquier régimen de pensiones, el eje entre la estabilidad financiera y la adecuación es la edad de jubilación. En el modelo de cotizaciones teóricas definidas, el individuo selecciona por sí mismo su edad de jubilación, por encima de la edad mínima. Por medio de incentivos, la edad de jubilación efectiva debería aumentar en consonancia con el envejecimiento de la población. Como enfoque de reforma sistémica, el modelo de cotizaciones teóricas definidas se ha convertido en un importante competidor de las reformas paramétricas parciales de los regímenes tradicionales de prestaciones teóricas definidas. Si bien son frecuentes, estas reformas no son transparentes y por lo general son demasiado ligeras y llegan tarde para garantizar la sostenibilidad financiera y proporcionar al mismo tiempo pensiones adecuadas para el cotizante medio. Este artículo ofrece una presentación en buena medida no técnica de los regímenes de cotizaciones teóricas definidas, sus elementos básicos y sus ventajas con respecto a los regímenes de prestaciones teóricas definidas, las principales limitaciones técnicas del enfoque y las experiencias de los países con regímenes de cotizaciones teóricas definidas. Nominelle beitragsbestimmte Rentensysteme (Rentensysteme mit festgelegten Beiträgen und fiktiven Konten) wurden seit Mitte der 1990er‐Jahre in mehreren europäischen Ländern wie Italien, Lettland, Norwegen, Polen und Schweden erfolgreich eingeführt. Der Ansatz dieser Systeme weist die lebenslange Verknüpfung zwischen gezahlten Beiträgen und erhaltenen Leistungen eines finanziellen Systems mit festgelegten Beiträgen und persönlichen Konten auf, beruht jedoch auf dem Umlageverfahren. Beim Start des Systems werden die Umlageverpflichtungen des vorangehenden Systems mit garantierten Leistungen in individuelle persönliche Konten umgewandelt, damit ein reibungsloser Übergang vom leistungsorientierten zum beitragsorientierten Format sichergestellt werden kann, wobei die sehr hohen Übergangskosten eines Wandels von einem herkömmlichen System im Umlageverfahren mit garantierten Leistungen zu einem kapitalgedeckten finanziellen System mit festgelegten Beiträgen vermieden werden. Wird der Ansatz des nominellen beitragsbestimmten Systems streng nach den Regeln umgesetzt, dann ist dieses in der Lage, erfolgreich mit den wirtschaftlichen und demographischen Risiken eines Rentensystems umzugehen, und aufgrund seiner Gestaltung ist auch die finanzielle Tragfähigkeit gesichert. Wie in jedem Rentensystem ist das zentrale Bindeglied, das zwischen finanzieller Stabilität und Angemessenheit geschaffen werden kann, das Rentenalter. Beim Ansatz eines nominellen beitragsbestimmten Systems wird das individuelle Rentenalter oberhalb des Mindestrentenalters aufgrund der Systemgestaltung selbst gewählt und sollte durch Anreize zu einer Anhebung des effektiven Rentenalters parallel zur Bevölkerungsalterung führen. Nominelle beitragsbestimmte Systeme sind als systemische Reformansätze zu einer starken Konkurrenz für stückweise parametrische Reformen herkömmlicher nichtfinanzieller leistungsorientierter Systeme geworden. Diese Reformen werden zwar häufig angewendet, sie sind jedoch alles andere als transparent und werden meist zu schüchtern und zu spät umgesetzt, um eine finanzielle Tragfähigkeit zu gewährleisten und gleichzeitig für durchschnittliche Beitragszahler angemessene Renten zu ermöglichen. Dieser Artikel bietet eine weitgehend nichttechnische Einführung in nominelle beitragsbestimmte Systeme, in ihre Grundelemente und ihre Vorteile gegenüber nichtfinanziellen Systemen mit garantierten Leistungen, in die wichtigsten technischen Grenzen des Ansatzes und in die Erfahrungen von Ländern, die nominelle beitragsbestimmte Systeme bereits eingeführt haben. Реализация нефинансовых пенсионных программ с установленным размером взносов успешно осуществляется с середины 1990‐х годов в ряде европейских стран, например, в Италии, Латвии, Норвегии, Польше и Швеции. Такие системы включают пожизненный компонент «взносы‐выплаты», характерный для финансовых систем с установленным размером взносов и личными счетами, но базируются на распределительном принципе. При внедрении такой системы распределительные обязательства в рамках предшествующей системы с установленными выплатами преобразуются в индивидуальные личные счета, что позволяет осуществить плавный переход от формата с установленными выплатами к формату с установленными взносами, избежав в то же время весьма больших расходов, присущих переходу от традиционных распределительных систем с установленными выплатами к накопительной финансовой системе с установленными взносами. Корректная реализация нефинансовых пенсионных программ с установленным размером взносов позволяет управлять экономическими и демографическими рисками, присущими любой пенсионной системе, и по определению способствует финансовой стабильности. Как и в любой пенсионной системе, ключевым элементом, определяющим финансовую стабильность и достаточность размера пособий, является пенсионный возраст. В нефинансовой пенсионной системе с установленным размером взносов индивидуальное решение о возрасте выхода на пенсию после наступления минимального пенсионного возраста принимается самостоятельно, а меры стимулирования позволяют повысить фактический возраст выхода на пенсию в соответствии с темпами старения населения. В качестве метода системного реформирования нефинансовые пенсионные программы с установленным размером взносов стали серьезным конкурентом поэтапных параметрических реформ традиционных нефинансовых систем с установленным размером выплат. Несмотря на частую встречаемость последних, они не являются прозрачными и, как правило, действуют слишком нерешительно и слишком медленно, чтобы обеспечить финансовую стабильность и предоставить среднестатистическому плательщику взносов пенсию достаточного размера. Настоящая статья предназначена преимущественно для общего ознакомления с нефинансовыми пенсионными программами с установленным размером взносов, их базовыми элементами и преимуществами по сравнению с нефинансовыми программами с установленными выплатами, ключевыми техническими ограничениями и опытом стран, в которых действуют подобные системы. 1990年代中期以来,意大利、拉脱维亚、挪威、波兰和瑞典等欧洲国家成功实施了名义确定缴费型(NDC)养老金计划。NDC方法的特点是,实账确定缴费型(FDC)个人账户计划的缴费与给付终身挂钩,但它是基于现收现付(PAYG)的模式。最初,先前的确定给付(DB)型制度中现收现付式的承诺被转换为个人账户,从而使确定给付(DB)型能够平滑过渡到确定缴费(DC)模式,同时避免了从传统的现收现付式的确定给付型计划转变成完全基金积累式的确定缴费型计划内在的高过渡成本。根据规则手册实施的名义确定缴费型方法能够管理养老金计划内在的经济和人口风险,并且通过设计,能够创造财政上的可持续性。与任何养老金计划一样,财政稳定性与充足性之间的关键是退休年龄;在名义确定缴费型方法中,按照设计,超过最低退休年龄的个人退休年龄系自我择定,而奖励措施应依照人口老龄化情况来延长有效的退休年龄。作为一种系统性的改革方式,名义确定缴费型计划已成为传统的名义确定给付(NDB)型计划零敲碎打的参数改革的强大竞争对手。虽然这些改革很频繁,但远非透明,通常太过胆小和太迟缓,以至于无法创造财政上的可持续性,同时也不能为一般缴费者提供足够的养老金。本文主要介绍有关名义确定缴费型计划、其基本要素和相对于名义确定给付型计划的优势、该方法的关键技术前沿以及实施名义确定缴费型计划国家经验等非技术性的方方面面。 طُبقت مخططات المعاشات التقاعدية القائمة على الاشتراكات المحددة غير الممولة بنجاح منذ أواسط تسعينيات القرن العشرين في عدد من البلدان الأوربية مثل إيطاليا ولاتفيا والنرويج وبولندا والسويد. ويتسم نهج الاشتراكات المحددة غير الممولة بالربط مدى الحياة بين الاستحقاقات والاشتراكات، محاكيًا في ذلك مخططات الحساب الشخصي القائمة على الاشتراكات المحددة الممولة، إضافة إلى أنه يقوم على نظام الدفع أولًا بأول. وعند تطبيق هذا المخطط أول مرة تُحوَّل الالتزامات المدفوعة أولًا بأول من نظام الاستحقاقات المحددة السابق إلى حسابات شخصية فردية، ما يسمح بانتقال سلس من الاستحقاقات المحددة إلى نموذج الاشتراكات المحددة، ويؤدي في الوقت نفسه إلى تجنب تكاليف الانتقال المرتفعة الملازمة للانتقال من المخططات التقليدية للاستحقاقات المحددة المدفوعة أولًا بأول إلى مخططات الاشتراكات المحددة الممولة بالكامل. ويستطيع نهج الاشتراكات المحددة غير الممولة المُطبَّق وفق القواعد المقررة التعامل مع المخاطر الاقتصادية والديمغرافة الملازمة لمخططات المعاشات التقاعدية، ويمكنه بحكم تصميمه تحقيق الاستدامة المالية. وكما الحال في أي مخطط للمعاشات التقاعدية فإن محور الاستقرار المالي والكفاية هو سن التقاعد؛ ووفقًا لنهج الاشتراكات المحددة غير الممولة تكون زيادة سن التقاعد على الحد الأدنى على المستوى الفردي اختيارية، وينبغي أن تؤدي الحوافز المقدمة إلى زيادة سن التقاعد الفعال تماشياً مع شيخوخة السكان. وفيما يتعلق بالإصلاح النظامي فقد أصبح نهج الاشتراكات المحددة غير الممولة منافساً قوياً للإصلاحات البارمترية التدريجية للمخططات التقليدية القائمة على الاستحقاقات المحددة غير الممولة، ومع زيادة وتيرة هذه الإصلاحات فإنها بعيدة عن الشفافية وعادة ما تكون ضعيفة جداً وبعيدة كل البعد عن تحقيق الاستدامة المالية في حين توفر معاشات تقاعدية كافية لمتوسط مجموع المشتركين. ويعرض هذا المقال مقدمة، غير تقنية إلى حد كبير، في مخططات الاشتراكات المحددة غير الممولة، وعناصرها الأساسية ومميزاتها من مخططات الاستحقاقات المحددة غير الممولة، والحدود الفنية الرئيسة للنهج، وخبرات البلدان التي طبقت هذه المخططات. Regimes de pensão de contribuição definida não‐financeira (NDC) têm sido implantados com sucesso desde os meados dos anos 90 em alguns países europeus, como Itália, Letônia, Noruega, Polônia e Suécia. A metodologia dos regimes NDC apresenta o vínculo entre as contribuições ao longo da vida inteira e os benefícios característico de um regime de conta pessoal de contribuição definida financeira (FDC), mas é baseado no modelo de repartição simples (ou PAYG, pay‐as‐you‐go). Ao ser lançado, os compromissos de repartição simples PAYG do sistema anterior de benefícios definidos (DB) são convertidos em contas pessoais individuais, o que possibilita uma transição fácil do plano de benefícios definidos ao plano de contribuições definidas, ao mesmo tempo em que evita os altíssimos custos de transição inerentes a uma migração de um plano DB PAYG tradicional para um plano FDC totalmente financiado. A metodologia dos regimes NDC implementada segundo as regras é capaz de gerenciar os riscos econômicos e demográficos característicos de um plano de pensão e, por sua estrutura, estabelecer sustentabilidade financeira. Como em qualquer plano de pensão, o elemento‐chave entre estabilidade financeira e adequação é a idade de aposentadoria; a metodologia dos regimes NDC prevê que a idade de aposentadoria individual acima da idade mínima é selecionada pelos próprios indivíduos e, através de incentivos, deveria aumentar a idade de aposentadoria em sintonia com o envelhecimento da população. Como metodologia de reforma sistêmica, o regime NDC tornou‐se um concorrente forte de reformas paramétricas parciais de planos de benefícios definidos não‐financeiros (NDB) tradicionais. Apesar de frequentes, essas reformas estão longe de ser transparentes e geralmente carecem de ousadia e de agilidade para proporcionar sustentabilidade financeira e, ao mesmo tempo, assegurar pensões razoáveis ao contribuinte médio. Este artigo faz uma introdução essencialmente não técnica sobre os planos NDC, seus elementos básicos, suas vantagens sobre os planos NDB, além de citar as principais limitações técnicas da metodologia e as experiências de países que adotaram o NDC.

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  • Robert Holzmann, 2017. "The ABCs of nonfinancial defined contribution (NDC) schemes," International Social Security Review, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 70(3), pages 53-77, July.
  • Handle: RePEc:wly:intssr:v:70:y:2017:i:3:p:53-77
    DOI: 10.1111/issr.12142
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    1. Nisticò, Sergio & Bevilacqua, Mirko, 2013. "Notional defined contribution (NDC) pension schemes and income patterns," Economics - The Open-Access, Open-Assessment E-Journal (2007-2020), Kiel Institute for the World Economy (IfW Kiel), vol. 7, pages 1-24.
    2. Ayuso, Mercedes & Bravo, Jorge Miguel & Holzmann, Robert, 2016. "On the Heterogeneity in Longevity among Socioeconomic Groups: Scope, Trends, and Implications for Earnings-Related Pension Schemes," IZA Discussion Papers 10060, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
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    1. Lorenzo Fratoni & Susanna Levantesi & Massimiliano Menzietti, 2022. "Measuring Financial Sustainability and Social Adequacy of the Italian NDC Pension System under the COVID-19 Pandemic," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(23), pages 1-23, December.
    2. Carlos Vidal-Meliá & Manuel Ventura-Marco & Juan Manuel Pérez-Salamero González, 2018. "Social Insurance Accounting for a Notional Defined Contribution Scheme Combining Retirement and Long-Term Care Benefits," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 10(8), pages 1-36, August.
    3. Carlos Vidal-Meliá & Manuel Ventura-Marco & Juan Manuel Pérez-Salamero González, 2018. "Actuarial accounting for a notional defined contribution scheme combining retirement and longterm care benefits," Documentos de Trabajo del ICAE 2018-16, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Instituto Complutense de Análisis Económico.
    4. Gustavo da Costa Morais & Carolina Cardoso Novo & Mirian Picinini Méxas, 2021. "Notional Defined Contribution (NDC) Schemes: a pension system alternative," Remef - Revista Mexicana de Economía y Finanzas Nueva Época REMEF (The Mexican Journal of Economics and Finance), Instituto Mexicano de Ejecutivos de Finanzas, IMEF, vol. 16(2), pages 1-18, Abril - J.
    5. Hind El-Houjjaji & Abdellah Echaoui, 2020. "Notional Defined Contribution Accounts: An Application To Morocco," Review of Economic and Business Studies, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, issue 25, pages 93-108, June.
    6. Fabrizio Culotta, 2021. "Life Expectancy Heterogeneity and Pension Fairness: An Italian North-South Divide," Risks, MDPI, vol. 9(3), pages 1-22, March.
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    More about this item

    JEL classification:

    • H55 - Public Economics - - National Government Expenditures and Related Policies - - - Social Security and Public Pensions
    • J11 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Demographic Trends, Macroeconomic Effects, and Forecasts
    • J26 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demand and Supply of Labor - - - Retirement; Retirement Policies

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