The social context of technological systems: dreadnoughts, computers, and flags

Using the performance of the Royal Navy as an illustration, this paper shows that systems of systems break apart at the perilous edge where human behavior meets engineered systems. The development of accurate long-range naval gunnery enabled rapid, fundamental, and interrelated changes capital ship design, known today as the “dreadnought revolution.” The engineered technical systems for rangefinding, aiming, armament, centralized direction, and speed were integrated into new complex ships—the dreadnought battleship and the battlecruiser. These complex machines were in turn integrated into massive fleets. These fleets posed a challenge for the social order of the Royal Navy, which met the challenge through the development of rigid and formalized techniques for command and control (C2). The rules of command and control represent the practitioners’ efforts at systems thinking, and are heavily influenced by the social context of the institution. When subject to the stresses of war, the Royal Navy’s system broke down, resulting in poor performance and tragic losses. Ultimately, systems theorists need to have an understanding of the social context in which technological systems operate that goes beyond rational choice models of human behavior if they want to better understand the performance of systems of systems.