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Anxiety and depression symptoms, the recovery from symptoms, and loneliness before and after the COVID-19 outbreak among the general population: Findings from a Dutch population-based longitudinal study

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  • Peter G van der Velden
  • Philip Hyland
  • Carlo Contino
  • Hans-Martin von Gaudecker
  • Ruud Muffels
  • Marcel Das

Abstract

Objectives: Examine the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health and loneliness in the general population. More specifically, the study focused on prevalence of anxiety and depression symptoms, the extent to which individuals with existing symptoms recovered or not, the prevalence of subtypes of loneliness, and the extent to which loneliness before and during this pandemic was associated with anxiety and depression symptoms. Methods: Data was extracted from the longitudinal LISS panel, based on a probability sample of the Dutch population, with assessments on loneliness in October 2019 (T1) and June 2020 (T4), and anxiety and depression symptoms in November 2019 (T2), March 2020 (T3) and June 2020 (T4; Ntotal = 4,084). Loneliness was examined with the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale and anxiety and depression symptoms with the Mental Health Inventory (MHI-5). Results: Repeated measures multivariate logistic regression analyses (RMMLRA) showed a statistical significant lower prevalence of anxiety and depression symptoms after the outbreak (T4 = 15.3%) than before (T2 = 16.8%) and during the COVID-19 outbreak (T3 = 17.2%). According to the Reliable Change Index, the distribution of recovery categories (remission, improvement, unchanged and worsening symptoms) after the outbreak did not differ significantly from the distribution of these categories before the outbreak. RMMLRA revealed that the prevalence of emotional loneliness increased significantly after the outbreak (T1 = 18.4%, T4 = 24.8%). Among individuals who were not lonely before and after the outbreak the prevalence of symptoms decreased significantly (T2 = 7.0%, T4 = 4.4%) and, likewise, among those who were not lonely anymore after the outbreak (T2 = 21.5%, T4 = 14.5%). However, the prevalence of symptoms increased significantly among those who became lonely during the pandemic (T2 = 17.9%, T4 = 26.3%). Conclusions: Findings suggest that this pandemic did not negatively affect the prevalence of anxiety and depression symptoms nor the normal recovery of symptoms among the general population during the first four months, but that emotional loneliness increased.

Suggested Citation

  • Peter G van der Velden & Philip Hyland & Carlo Contino & Hans-Martin von Gaudecker & Ruud Muffels & Marcel Das, 2021. "Anxiety and depression symptoms, the recovery from symptoms, and loneliness before and after the COVID-19 outbreak among the general population: Findings from a Dutch population-based longitudinal stu," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 16(1), pages 1-17, January.
    • Handle: RePEc:plo:pone00:0245057
    DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0245057
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    Cited by:

    1. Mateusz Babicki & Bogna Bogudzińska & Krzysztof Kowalski & Agnieszka Mastalerz-Migas, 2022. "Depression, Anxiety and Quality of Life among Online Responders in Poland: A Cross-Sectional Study Covering Four Waves of the COVID-19 Pandemic," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(16), pages 1-16, August.
    2. Latikka, Rita & Koivula, Aki & Oksa, Reetta & Savela, Nina & Oksanen, Atte, 2022. "Loneliness and psychological distress before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: Relationships with social media identity bubbles," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 293(C).
    3. Nicola Di Fazio & Donato Morena & Giuseppe Delogu & Gianpietro Volonnino & Federico Manetti & Martina Padovano & Matteo Scopetti & Paola Frati & Vittorio Fineschi, 2022. "Mental Health Consequences of COVID-19 Pandemic Period in the European Population: An Institutional Challenge," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(15), pages 1-20, July.
    4. Olga Strizhitskaya & Marina Petrash & Inna Murtazina & Gayane Vartanyan & Anton Shchukin, 2021. "Loneliness among Middle-Aged and Older Middle-Aged Adults in Russia (Saint Petersburg) before and during COVID-19 Pandemic," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(18), pages 1-11, September.
    5. Siv Karlsson Stafseth & Laila Skogstad & Johan Ræder & Ingvild Strand Hovland & Haakon Hovde & Øivind Ekeberg & Irene Lie, 2022. "Symptoms of Anxiety, Depression, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Health Care Personnel in Norwegian ICUs during the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic, a Prospective, Observational Cross-Sectio," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(12), pages 1-15, June.

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